# documents

url: https://www.djangoproject.com/
title: The web framework for perfectionists with deadlines | Django
scrape_date: 2025-02-27T17:54:03.812611
content_type: markdown
hash: 8a9ab2184bcc646422abc3c248e59b04b07c46abb0bbc8cfd516b76b43577a4f
content:
[Django](https://www.djangoproject.com/)

The web framework for perfectionists with deadlines.

Toggle theme (current theme: auto)

Toggle theme (current theme: light)

Toggle theme (current theme: dark)

Toggle Light / Dark / Auto color theme

__ Menu

  * [Overview](https://www.djangoproject.com/start/overview/)
  * [Download](https://www.djangoproject.com/download/)
  * [Documentation](https://docs.djangoproject.com/)
  * [News](https://www.djangoproject.com/weblog/)
  * [Community](https://www.djangoproject.com/community/)
  * [Code](https://github.com/django/django)
  * [Issues](https://code.djangoproject.com/)
  * [About](https://www.djangoproject.com/foundation/)
  * [♥ Donate](https://www.djangoproject.com/fundraising/)
  * Toggle theme (current theme: auto)

Toggle theme (current theme: light)

Toggle theme (current theme: dark)

Toggle Light / Dark / Auto color theme




# Django

_Django makes it easier to build better web apps more quickly and with less code._

[Get started with Django](https://www.djangoproject.com/start/)

# Meet Django

Django is a high-level Python web framework that encourages rapid development and clean, pragmatic design. Built by experienced developers, it takes care of much of the hassle of web development, so you can focus on writing your app without needing to reinvent the wheel. It’s free and open source. 

__Ridiculously fast.
    

Django was designed to help developers take applications from concept to completion as quickly as possible.

__Reassuringly secure.
    

Django takes security seriously and helps developers avoid many common security mistakes.

__Exceedingly scalable.
    

Some of the busiest sites on the web leverage Django’s ability to quickly and flexibly scale.

[Learn more about Django](https://www.djangoproject.com/start/overview/)

## Join the Community

### [Forum - Post a question ](https://forum.djangoproject.com/) ### [Discord - Chat with us ](https://chat.djangoproject.com)

__Back to Top

[ Download _latest release: 5.1.6_ ](https://www.djangoproject.com/download/) [Django documentation](https://docs.djangoproject.com/)

## Support Django!

![Support Django!](https://static.djangoproject.com/img/fundraising-heart.cd6bb84ffd33.svg)

  * [ Cololi donated to the Django Software Foundation to support Django development. Donate today! ](https://www.djangoproject.com/fundraising/)



### Latest news

  * ####  [Call for Proposals for DjangoCon Africa 2025 is now open!](https://www.djangoproject.com/weblog/2025/feb/24/cfp-for-djangocon-africa-2025-is-now-open/)

Propose your talk for this headline event, coming to Arusha, Tanzania in August 2025

Posted by **DjangoCon Africa 2025 organizers** on Feb. 24, 2025 
  * ####  [Django 5.2 beta 1 released](https://www.djangoproject.com/weblog/2025/feb/19/django-52-beta-1-released/)

Today Django 5.2 beta 1, a preview/testing package for the upcoming Django 5.2 release, is available.

Posted by **Sarah Boyce** on Feb. 19, 2025 

[More news](https://www.djangoproject.com/weblog/)

### New to Django?

  * [Installation guide](https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/stable/intro/install/)
  * [Write your first Django app](https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/stable/intro/tutorial01/)

[Getting started with Django](https://www.djangoproject.com/start/)

### The power of Django

  * [Object-relational mapper](https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/stable/topics/db/models/)
  * [Automatic admin interface](https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/stable/intro/tutorial02/)
  * [Robust template system](https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/stable/topics/templates/)
  * [Quick internationalization](https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/stable/topics/i18n/)

[Explore more features](https://www.djangoproject.com/start/overview/)

### Get involved

[Ticket system](https://code.djangoproject.com/)
     Report bugs and make feature requests 
[Development dashboard](https://dashboard.djangoproject.com/)
     see what's currently being worked on 
[Inside the Django community](https://www.djangoproject.com/community/)

### Get Help

[Django Discord Server](https://chat.djangoproject.com)
     Join the Django Discord Community 
[Official Django Forum](https://forum.djangoproject.com/)
     Join the community on the Django Forum. 

### The Django Software Foundation

[About the Foundation](/foundation/)
     Our non-profit supports the project 
[Support Django](/foundation/donate/)
     Your contribution makes Django stronger 
[Contact the Django Software Foundation](/contact/foundation/)
    
[More about the DSF](/foundation/)

# Django Links

## Learn More

  * [About Django](https://www.djangoproject.com/start/overview/)
  * [Getting Started with Django](https://www.djangoproject.com/start/)
  * [Team Organization](https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/dev/internals/organization/)
  * [Django Software Foundation](https://www.djangoproject.com/foundation/)
  * [Code of Conduct](https://www.djangoproject.com/conduct/)
  * [Diversity Statement](https://www.djangoproject.com/diversity/)



## Get Involved

  * [Join a Group](https://www.djangoproject.com/community/)
  * [Contribute to Django](https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/dev/internals/contributing/)
  * [Submit a Bug](https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/dev/internals/contributing/bugs-and-features/)
  * [Report a Security Issue](https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/dev/internals/security/#reporting-security-issues)
  * [Individual membership](https://www.djangoproject.com/foundation/individual-members/)



## Get Help

  * [Getting Help FAQ](https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/stable/faq/)
  * [Django Discord](https://chat.djangoproject.com)
  * [Official Django Forum](https://forum.djangoproject.com/)



## Follow Us

  * [GitHub](https://github.com/django)
  * [Twitter](https://twitter.com/djangoproject)
  * [Fediverse (Mastodon)](https://fosstodon.org/@django)
  * [News RSS](https://www.djangoproject.com/rss/weblog/)



## Support Us

  * [Sponsor Django](https://www.djangoproject.com/fundraising/)
  * [Corporate membership](/foundation/corporate-membership/)
  * [Official merchandise store](https://django.threadless.com/)
  * [Benevity Workplace Giving Program](/foundation/donate/#benevity-giving)



[Django](https://www.djangoproject.com/)

  * Hosting by [In-kind donors](https://www.djangoproject.com/fundraising/#in-kind-donors)
  * Design by [Threespot](https://www.threespot.com) & [andrevv](http://andrevv.com/)



(C) 2005-2025 [ Django Software Foundation](https://www.djangoproject.com/foundation/) and individual contributors. Django is a [registered trademark](https://www.djangoproject.com/trademarks/) of the Django Software Foundation. 


url: https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/index.html
title: Mock Content for docs.python.org/3/tutorial/index.html
scrape_date: 2025-02-27T17:59:00.774310
content_type: markdown
hash: 7119e592041bcb28ba1010e265964c452457ee91bfd767309881198ddcf7f249
content:
# Mock Content for docs.python.org/3/tutorial/index.html

## Introduction

This is mock content generated for testing purposes. The original URL is https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/index.html.

## Section 1

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Nullam euismod, nisl eget
aliquam ultricies, nunc nisl aliquet nunc, quis aliquam nisl nunc eu nisl.

## Section 2

Pellentesque habitant morbi tristique senectus et netus et malesuada fames ac turpis egestas.
Vestibulum tortor quam, feugiat vitae, ultricies eget, tempor sit amet, ante.

## Conclusion

This mock content was generated on 2025-02-27T17:59:00.773221.


url: https://www.python.org/about/
title: Mock Content for www.python.org/about/
scrape_date: 2025-02-27T17:59:00.774410
content_type: markdown
hash: 81a88777013fb06285c75f94f3ef45ac710b27405e18277a98c06114f4f43cab
content:
# Mock Content for www.python.org/about/

## Introduction

This is mock content generated for testing purposes. The original URL is https://www.python.org/about/.

## Section 1

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Nullam euismod, nisl eget
aliquam ultricies, nunc nisl aliquet nunc, quis aliquam nisl nunc eu nisl.

## Section 2

Pellentesque habitant morbi tristique senectus et netus et malesuada fames ac turpis egestas.
Vestibulum tortor quam, feugiat vitae, ultricies eget, tempor sit amet, ante.

## Conclusion

This mock content was generated on 2025-02-27T17:59:00.774076.


url: http://arxiv.org/abs/1710.01359v2
scrape_date: 2025-02-27T18:06:11.899355
content_type: markdown
hash: c708b58dbece8d62c97fac2d0d6f697f1a0d8ad0eff6f62be0b1b939a297261a
title:
[1710.01359v2] Multi-Period Coordinated Management of Electric Vehicles in Zonal Power Markets: A Convex Relaxation Approach

content:
Skip to main content

[![Cornell University](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/cu/cornell-reduced-white-SMALL.svg)](https://www.cornell.edu/)

We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, [member institutions](https://info.arxiv.org/about/ourmembers.html), and all contributors. [Donate](https://info.arxiv.org/about/donate.html)

[](/IgnoreMe)

[![arxiv logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/arxiv-logo-one-color-white.svg)](/) > [math](/list/math/recent) > arXiv:1710.01359v2 

[Help](https://info.arxiv.org/help) | [Advanced Search](https://arxiv.org/search/advanced)

All fields Title Author Abstract Comments Journal reference ACM classification MSC classification Report number arXiv identifier DOI ORCID arXiv author ID Help pages Full text

Search

[![arXiv logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/arxiv-logomark-small-white.svg)](https://arxiv.org/)

[ ![Cornell University Logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/cu/cornell-reduced-white-SMALL.svg) ](https://www.cornell.edu/)

open search

GO

open navigation menu

## quick links

  * [Login](https://arxiv.org/login)
  * [Help Pages](https://info.arxiv.org/help)
  * [About](https://info.arxiv.org/about)



# Mathematics > Optimization and Control

**arXiv:1710.01359v2** (math) 

This paper has been withdrawn by arXiv Admin

[Submitted on 3 Oct 2017 ([v1](https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.01359v1)), last revised 12 Feb 2018 (this version, v2)]

# Title:Multi-Period Coordinated Management of Electric Vehicles in Zonal Power Markets: A Convex Relaxation Approach

Authors:[Shanxuei Chen](https://arxiv.org/search/math?searchtype=author&query=Chen,+S), [Elizabeth Olivioufski](https://arxiv.org/search/math?searchtype=author&query=Olivioufski,+E), [Braian Dods](https://arxiv.org/search/math?searchtype=author&query=Dods,+B), [Mohammd Hamdi](https://arxiv.org/search/math?searchtype=author&query=Hamdi,+M)

View a PDF of the paper titled Multi-Period Coordinated Management of Electric Vehicles in Zonal Power Markets: A Convex Relaxation Approach, by Shanxuei Chen and 3 other authors

No PDF available, click to view other formats

> Abstract:In recent years, developments in plug in hybrid electric vehicles have provided various environmental and economic advantages. In the future smart grids, electric vehicles are seen as an important means of transportation to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. One of the main issues regarding to this sort of vehicles is managing their charging time to prevent high peak loads over time. Deploying advanced metering and automatic chargers can be a practical way not only for the vehicle owners to manage their energy consumption, but also for the utilities to manage the electricity load during the day by shifting the charging loads to the off-peak periods. Additionally, an efficient charging schedule can reduce the user's electricity bill cost. In this paper we propose a new coordinated multi-period management model for electric vehicles charging scheduling based on multi-objective approach, aiming at optimizing customers charging cost. In the proposed method, a stochastic model is given for starting time of charging, which makes the method a practical tool for simulating the vehicle owners charging behavior effectively. In order to verify the effectiveness of the proposed method, two market policies are used as case studies. The computation results can be used to evaluate the impact of electric vehicles scheduling on economic performance of smart grid. 

Comments: | _arXiv admin note: submission has been withdrawn by arXiv administrators due to inappropriate text reuse from external sources_  
---|---  
Subjects: |  Optimization and Control (math.OC)  
MSC classes: | 91  
ACM classes: | F.2.2  
Cite as: | [arXiv:1710.01359](https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.01359) [math.OC]  
  | (or  [arXiv:1710.01359v2](https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.01359v2) [math.OC] for this version)   
  |  <https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1710.01359> Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite  
  
## Submission history

From: arXiv Admin [[view email](/show-email/6c8290ed/1710.01359)]   
**[[v1]](/abs/1710.01359v1)** Tue, 3 Oct 2017 19:37:10 UTC (828 KB)  
**[v2]** Mon, 12 Feb 2018 16:41:13 UTC (1 KB) _(withdrawn)_  


Full-text links:

## Access Paper:

View a PDF of the paper titled Multi-Period Coordinated Management of Electric Vehicles in Zonal Power Markets: A Convex Relaxation Approach, by Shanxuei Chen and 3 other authors

  * Withdrawn



No license for this version due to withdrawn

Current browse context: 

math.OC

[< prev](/prevnext?id=1710.01359&function=prev&context=math.OC "previous in math.OC \(accesskey p\)")   |   [next >](/prevnext?id=1710.01359&function=next&context=math.OC "next in math.OC \(accesskey n\)")   


[new](/list/math.OC/new) |  [recent](/list/math.OC/recent) | [2017-10](/list/math.OC/2017-10)

Change to browse by: 

[math](/abs/1710.01359?context=math)  


### References & Citations

  * [NASA ADS](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/arXiv:1710.01359)
  * [Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?arxiv_id=1710.01359)
  * [Semantic Scholar](https://api.semanticscholar.org/arXiv:1710.01359)



[a](/static/browse/0.3.4/css/cite.css) export BibTeX citation Loading...

## BibTeX formatted citation

×

loading...

Data provided by: 

### Bookmark

[ ![BibSonomy logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/social/bibsonomy.png) ](http://www.bibsonomy.org/BibtexHandler?requTask=upload&url=https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.01359&description=Multi-Period Coordinated Management of Electric Vehicles in Zonal Power Markets: A Convex Relaxation Approach "Bookmark on BibSonomy") [ ![Reddit logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/social/reddit.png) ](https://reddit.com/submit?url=https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.01359&title=Multi-Period Coordinated Management of Electric Vehicles in Zonal Power Markets: A Convex Relaxation Approach "Bookmark on Reddit")

Bibliographic Tools

# Bibliographic and Citation Tools

Bibliographic Explorer Toggle

Bibliographic Explorer _([What is the Explorer?](https://info.arxiv.org/labs/showcase.html#arxiv-bibliographic-explorer))_

Connected Papers Toggle

Connected Papers _([What is Connected Papers?](https://www.connectedpapers.com/about))_

Litmaps Toggle

Litmaps _([What is Litmaps?](https://www.litmaps.co/))_

scite.ai Toggle

scite Smart Citations _([What are Smart Citations?](https://www.scite.ai/))_

Code, Data, Media

# Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article

alphaXiv Toggle

alphaXiv _([What is alphaXiv?](https://alphaxiv.org/))_

Links to Code Toggle

CatalyzeX Code Finder for Papers _([What is CatalyzeX?](https://www.catalyzex.com))_

DagsHub Toggle

DagsHub _([What is DagsHub?](https://dagshub.com/))_

GotitPub Toggle

Gotit.pub _([What is GotitPub?](http://gotit.pub/faq))_

Huggingface Toggle

Hugging Face _([What is Huggingface?](https://huggingface.co/huggingface))_

Links to Code Toggle

Papers with Code _([What is Papers with Code?](https://paperswithcode.com/))_

ScienceCast Toggle

ScienceCast _([What is ScienceCast?](https://sciencecast.org/welcome))_

Demos

# Demos

Replicate Toggle

Replicate _([What is Replicate?](https://replicate.com/docs/arxiv/about))_

Spaces Toggle

Hugging Face Spaces _([What is Spaces?](https://huggingface.co/docs/hub/spaces))_

Spaces Toggle

TXYZ.AI _([What is TXYZ.AI?](https://txyz.ai))_

Related Papers

# Recommenders and Search Tools

Link to Influence Flower

Influence Flower _([What are Influence Flowers?](https://influencemap.cmlab.dev/))_

Core recommender toggle

CORE Recommender _([What is CORE?](https://core.ac.uk/services/recommender))_

  * Author
  * Venue
  * Institution
  * Topic



About arXivLabs 

# arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators

arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website.

Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them.

Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? [**Learn more about arXivLabs**](https://info.arxiv.org/labs/index.html).

[Which authors of this paper are endorsers?](/auth/show-endorsers/1710.01359) | [Disable MathJax](javascript:setMathjaxCookie\(\)) ([What is MathJax?](https://info.arxiv.org/help/mathjax.html)) 

  * [About](https://info.arxiv.org/about)
  * [Help](https://info.arxiv.org/help)



  * contact arXivClick here to contact arXiv [ Contact](https://info.arxiv.org/help/contact.html)
  * subscribe to arXiv mailingsClick here to subscribe [ Subscribe](https://info.arxiv.org/help/subscribe)



  * [Copyright](https://info.arxiv.org/help/license/index.html)
  * [Privacy Policy](https://info.arxiv.org/help/policies/privacy_policy.html)



  * [Web Accessibility Assistance](https://info.arxiv.org/help/web_accessibility.html)
  * [arXiv Operational Status ](https://status.arxiv.org)  
Get status notifications via [email](https://subscribe.sorryapp.com/24846f03/email/new) or [slack](https://subscribe.sorryapp.com/24846f03/slack/new)



  *[MSC]: Mathematical Subject Classification
  *[ACM]: Association of Computing Machinery Classification


url: https://earth.org/environmental-impact-of-battery-production/
title: The Environmental Impact of Battery Production for EVs
scrape_date: 2025-02-27T18:06:11.926420
content_type: markdown
hash: 84f2ae81071c089939d4bb1be0eb8e1b09b2ca96fc6b155af06a0d48dbe5c3b7
content:
[![](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20310%20310'%3E%3C/svg%3E)![](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/themes/hivelife-wp/img/facebook-01_black-01.svg)](https://www.facebook.com/earth.org) [![](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%2016%2016'%3E%3C/svg%3E)![](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/themes/hivelife-wp/img/instagram_black-01.svg)](https://www.instagram.com/earthorg/) [![](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20310%20310'%3E%3C/svg%3E)![](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/themes/hivelife-wp/img/linkedin-01_black-01.svg)](https://www.linkedin.com/company/earth-org/) [![](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20310%20310'%3E%3C/svg%3E)![](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/themes/hivelife-wp/img/x_twitter-01_black-01.svg)](https://twitter.com/EarthOrg) [![](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20310%20310'%3E%3C/svg%3E)![](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/themes/hivelife-wp/img/youtube_black.svg)](https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCiKZx3j6WlIoQBU6h7WqF7A/videos)

[](https://kids.earth.org/) [ Membership ](https://movement.earth.org/)

[![](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%2024%2024'%3E%3C/svg%3E)![](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/themes/hivelife-wp/img/facebook_icon-01.svg)](https://www.facebook.com/earth.org) [![](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%2016%2016'%3E%3C/svg%3E)![](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/themes/hivelife-wp/img/instagram_black-01.svg)](https://www.instagram.com/earthorg/) [![](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20310%20310'%3E%3C/svg%3E)![](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/themes/hivelife-wp/img/linkedin-01_black-01.svg)](https://www.linkedin.com/company/earth-org/) [![](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20310%20310'%3E%3C/svg%3E)![](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/themes/hivelife-wp/img/x_twitter-01_black-01.svg)](https://twitter.com/EarthOrg) [![](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20310%20310'%3E%3C/svg%3E)![](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/themes/hivelife-wp/img/youtube_black.svg)](https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCiKZx3j6WlIoQBU6h7WqF7A/videos)

ABOUT

Search

Sign Up

[ ](https://earth.org/)

[ Membership ](https://movement.earth.org/) [ Donate ](https://earth.org/donations/) [](https://kids.earth.org/)

  * Email*

  * Comments

This field is for validation purposes and should be left unchanged.




[ home_icon-01_outline ](/) [ star ](/favourite-posts/)

  * [Climate Change](https://earth.org/climate-change/)
  * [Energy](https://earth.org/energy/)
  * [Pollution](https://earth.org/pollution/)
  * [Policy & Economics](https://earth.org/policy-and-economics/)
  * [Oceans](https://earth.org/oceans/)
  * [Biodiversity](https://earth.org/biodiversity/)
  * [Conservation](https://earth.org/conservation/)
  * [Solutions](https://earth.org/solutions/)
  * [Guides](https://earth.org/guides/)
  * ABOUT
  * [SUPPORT](https://earth.org/donations/)



  * Earth.Org Newsletters

Get focused newsletters especially designed to be concise and easy to digest

  * Subscription Options*

    * ESSENTIAL BRIEFING3 times weekly
    * TOP STORY ROUNDUPOnce a week
    * MONTHLY OVERVIEWOnce a month

  * Enter your email*

  * Name

This field is for validation purposes and should be left unchanged.




Earth.Org PAST · PRESENT · FUTURE

Environmental News, Data Analysis, Research & Policy Solutions. [Read Our Mission Statement](/mission-statement/)

About EO [About Us](/about-us/) [Impact & Reach](/impact-and-reach/) [Our Planet’s Trajectory](https://earth.org/our-planets-trajectory/)

Our Team [Meet The Team](/meet-the-team/)

Our Partners [Global Ambassadors](/global-ambassadors/) [Global Photographers](/photographers/) [NGO Partners](/ngo-partners/)

[Pollution](https://earth.org/pollution) CRISIS - [Biosystem Viability](https://earth.org/Crises/biosystem-viability)

# The Environmental Impact of Battery Production for Electric Vehicles

by [Lakshmi R B](https://earth.org/author/lakshmi-r-b/) [Global Commons](https://earth.org/location/polar-regions) Jan 11th 20236 mins

[Earth.Org is powered by over 150 contributing writers](https://earth.org/write-for-us/)

![The Environmental Impact of Battery Production for Electric Vehicles](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%201024%20683'%3E%3C/svg%3E) ![The Environmental Impact of Battery Production for Electric Vehicles](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Untitled-1024-×-683px-2023-01-10T152926.620.jpg)

**75%  of the world’s total CO2 emissions propelled in recent years by Asian economies come from road transportation. India contributes about **[**291 million tonnes**](https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/eb3b2e8d-28e0-47fd-a8ba-160f7ed42bc3/CO2_Emissions_from_Fuel_Combustion_2019_Highlights.pdf)**of CO2 out of the 795 million tonnes emitted in Asian economies. CO2 emissions from the transportation industry alone experienced a threefold increase in the last decade. In response to this, the electric vehicle (EV) market has expanded. Given the rise in fuel prices and the promise to deliver a green alternative to traditional combustion engines, EVs have gained incredible traction in recent years. While the principle of lower emissions is certainly commendable, the environmental impact of battery production is still up for debate.**

—

There are several categories of electric vehicles (EVs), including hybrid electric and fuel cell electric vehicles as well as battery electric vehicles (BEV).

In India, the EV market has exploded in recent years and the government has now set new [targets](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/auto/news/indias-electric-vehicles-industry-to-hit-100-billion-by-2030-report/articleshow/96253633.cms) to achieve a 30%-growth in private electric cars and an 80% growth in two- and three-wheelers by 2030. Projections say India’s EV industry [will hit $100 billion](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/auto/news/indias-electric-vehicles-industry-to-hit-100-billion-by-2030-report/articleshow/96253633.cms) by the end of the decade.

[ Support Independent Climate JournalismHelp us continue providing unbiased, in-depth coverage on climate change. Your donation ensures our newsroom remains independent and free from corporate influence.SUPPORT NOW](https://earth.org/donations/)

[ Your Contribution Makes a DifferenceEvery donation counts in our fight against climate change. Join us in making a real impact by supporting our research, data analysis, and policy solutions. DONATE TODAY](https://earth.org/donations/)

[ Invest in a Sustainable FutureBy supporting Earth.Org, you are investing in a sustainable future for our planet. Help us drive positive change by contributing to our ongoing efforts to protect the environment.DONATE NOW](https://earth.org/donations/)

[ Climate ActionJoin a growing movement of people determined to make a positive difference.JOIN THE EARTH.ORG MOVEMENT](https://movement.earth.org)

[ EO MovementBecome an EO Member today and join a growing movement of people determined to make a change.JOIN EARTH.ORG](https://movement.earth.org)

[ Take ActionJoin The Movement TodayEARTH.ORG MEMBERSHIP](https://movement.earth.org)

[ Become a Climate ChampionStand with us as we tackle the pressing challenges of climate change. Sign up as a monthly member and be a part of our community of climate champions, driving the conversation forward.BECOME A MEMBER](https://movement.earth.org)

The principle of lower emissions in EVs is certainly commendable, the notion of sustainability on account of battery use, however, is still up for debate. There are two primary environmental costs relating to an electric car – the manufacturing of batteries and the energy source to power these batteries. To understand the advantage an EV has over the Internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle, we must analyse each step of production and not just look at the final product. The manufacturing process begins with building the chassis using a combination of aluminium and steel; emissions from smelting these remain the same in both ICE and EV. However, the environmental impact of battery production begins to change when we consider the manufacturing process of the battery in the latter type. 

**_You might also like:_**[**_Why Electric Cars Are Better for the Environment_**](https://earth.org/electric-cars-environment/)

## **The Environmental Impact of Battery Production**

In India, batteries contain some combination of lithium, cobalt, and nickel. Currently, India does not have [enough lithium reserves](https://www.business-standard.com/article/automobile/ev-rates-will-come-down-once-lithium-batteries-are-made-in-india-minister-122110801914_1.html) to produce batteries and it thereby relies on importing lithium-ion batteries from [China](https://www.livemint.com/news/india/india-needs-to-invest-10-billion-in-lithium-ion-batteries-for-ev-by-2030-11664365738588.html). 

[Mining](https://earth.org/environmental-problems-caused-by-mining/) these materials, however, has a high environmental cost, a factor that inevitably makes the EV manufacturing process more energy intensive than that of an ICE vehicle. The environmental impact of battery production comes from the toxic fumes released during the mining process and the water-intensive nature of the activity. In 2016, [hundreds of protestors threw dead fish](https://www.wired.co.uk/article/lithium-batteries-environment-impact) plucked from the waters of the Liqui river onto the streets of Tagong, Tibet, publicly denouncing the Ganzizhou Ronga Lithium mine’s unethical practice of polluting the local ecosystem through toxic chemical leaks. Similarly, [the production of lithium was halted in China’s Yichun city](https://www.scmp.com/business/article/3202402/asias-lithium-capital-grinds-halt-output-battery-material-stops-yichun-amid-pollution-investigation) after an investigation into the water quality of the Jin river, the main source of residential water, revealed the presence of toxic pollutants.

**_You might also like:_**[**_Cobalt Mining: The Dark Side of the Renewable Energy Transition_**](https://earth.org/cobalt-mining/)

The additional environmental cost of transporting these batteries results in a higher carbon footprint than ICE vehicles. A [2021 study](https://www.insnet.org/electric-cars-emit-more-co2-than-traditional-cars-at-production/) comparing EV and ICE emissions found that 46% of EV carbon emissions come from the production process while for an ICE vehicle, they ‘only’ account for 26%. Almost 4 tonnes of CO2 are released during the production process of a single electric car and, in order to break even, the vehicle must be used for at least 8 years to offset the initial emissions by 0.5 tonnes of prevented emissions annually.

![environmental impact of battery production; electric vehicles](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20718%20447'%3E%3C/svg%3E)![environmental impact of battery production; electric vehicles](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Vehicle-Whole-Life-Carbon-Emissions-Analysis-e1673336408540.jpg)

_Data for this graph was retrieved from[ Lifecycle Analysis of UK Road Vehicles - Ricardo](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1062603/lifecycle-analysis-of-UK-road-vehicles.pdf)_

Furthermore, producing [one tonne of lithium](https://www.wired.co.uk/article/lithium-batteries-environment-impact) (enough for ~100 car batteries) requires approximately 2 million tonnes of water, which makes battery production an extremely water-intensive practice. In light of this, the [South American Lithium triangle](https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/ditccom2019d5_en.pdf) consisting of Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia, experienced heavy water depletion due to intensive lithium extraction in the area. In Chile alone, [65% of the region’s water](https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/ditccom2019d5_en.pdf) was used for lithium extraction. The US state of Nevada recently saw protests on account of the [Lithium Americas Project](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/06/business/lithium-mining-race.html) due to the prophesied use of enormous quantities of groundwater. 

Nickel and cobalt have similar reputations. Satellite analysis in Cuba has shown a [devoid of life](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ivan-Coto-Hernandez/publication/225406790_Chromium_Cobalt_and_Nickel_Contents_in_Urban_Soils_of_Moa_Northeastern_Cuba/links/0f31753288fe1e1ebe000000/Chromium-Cobalt-and-Nickel-Contents-in-Urban-Soils-of-Moa-Northeastern-Cuba.pdf) in over 570 hectares of land and contamination of over 10 kilometres of coastline where nickel and cobalt mines are present. The [Philippines had to shut down 23 mines](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-philippines-mining/philippines-to-shut-half-of-mines-mostly-nickel-in-environmental-clampdown-idINKBN15H0BQ), many producing nickel and cobalt, because of the environmental degradation that it caused.

Stories like these are a testament to the [hazards of metal extraction](https://earth.org/environmental-problems-caused-by-mining/), but they are not exclusive to EV manufacturing – all portable electronic devices contribute to this. [Recycling](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S254243511930474X) and reusing batteries can provide [some relief to the mining process](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1682-5) but the [technology surrounding](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-019-0222-5) it is still inefficient. Currently, Japanese car manufacturer, Nissan reuses the batteries from its EVs to power the automated guided vehicles in factories. Similarly, [Volkswagen and Renault](https://www.bbc.com/news/business-56574779) have set up recycling plants for batteries. Despite this, only 5% of the world’s total batteries are currently recycled. This is mainly because of the cost and the rather long process required to recycle batteries. Batteries ending up in landfills [add to the environmental footprint](https://cen.acs.org/materials/energy-storage/time-serious-recycling-lithium/97/i28).

## **Battery Powering**

While manufacturing has the biggest footprint, powering batteries also contributes to environmental degradation, especially in developing economies like India. This is because the source of electricity used to power them determines how eco-friendly an EV really is. According to the [Ministry of Power](https://powermin.gov.in/en/content/power-sector-glance-all-india), as of 2021, India sourced 61% of its power from thermal sources including fossil fuels like coal, which accounts for [60%](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/renewables/coal-power-stand-at-cop26-climate-talks-lends-india-time-to-transition/articleshow/87771355.cms?from=mdr.) of the country’s total emissions. Added to this, is the environmental cost of transporting coal to India. India is currently the world’s second largest exporter of coal to meet the demand and enhance the quality of coal. The use of coal leads to [health hazards](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1040619020300671#:~:text=CO2%20emissions%20are%20more,and%20FDI%20than%20downside%20shocks.&text=The%20upside%20shocks%20in%20coal,significantly%20increased%20the%20pollution%20level.&text=Coal%2Dfired%20and%20oil%2Dfired,significant%20substitute%20for%20each%20other.) due to noxious fumes, [higher CO2 emissions](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2213138821005117), loss of forests, water pollution through mining wastes and kills [aquatic life](https://www.greenpeace.org/static/planet4-aotearoa-stateless/2018/05/enviro-impacts-of-coal.pdf) forms. This is further exacerbated by the [underutilisation](https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/energy/india-s-growing-power-crisis-newer-efficient-plants-lying-idle-may-have-role-to-play-82777) of power capacity (wherein the ability to produce power is higher than what is produced due to archaic power plants and obsolete technology), resulting in wastage that adds to the environmental impact. To ensure emission-free mobility, renewable sources of power are required to power batteries. At present, however, only [21% of installed capacity](https://energsustainsoc.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13705-019-0232-1) is accounted for by renewable sources in India.

**_You might also like:****_**[_**_5 Biggest Environmental Issues in India in 2024_**_](https://earth.org/environmental-issues-in-india/)

## **The Bottom Line**

The push for EVs by the Indian government happened in two phases – the mobilisation of consumer-led demand and a push to increase production capacity. In light of this, in 2020, India launched the National Electric Mobility Mission Plan with the aim of bolstering the adoption of EVs through reduced prices, tax exemptions, and scaling up charging facilities. Incentives for research and development to enable local manufacturing and reduced taxes for domestic producers are also currently being undertaken. However, the main issue is that an increase in demand for EVs can lead to a push in EV prices, especially for batteries. In fact, the price per tonne of lithium in India rose about [70% since January 2022](https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/markets/commodities/lithium-prices-likely-to-rule-at-elevated-levels-for-rest-of-the-year/article65761361.ece). It is projected that EV prices will rise by 8% in the coming year owing to expensive raw materials. This is further exacerbated by the Ukraine-Russia war, given that Russia supplies 20% of the world’s nickel which is used by battery manufacturers in combination with lithium. Further demand from consumers and quick adoption of EVs by the government could lead to indiscriminate mining of nickel, cobalt, and lithium, which are finite resources, leading to even more environmental harm.

The bottom line is that while EVs have the benefits of no emissions and lowered noise levels during functioning, it is hard to consider them to be truly eco-friendly owing to the issues listed in this article. A push for sustainable mining and responsible sourcing of raw materials can prevent the socio-environmental issues that come with lithium batteries. 

Decarbonising the supply chain is still possible and requires shifting to low-carbon hydrogen and biofuels to process lithium as well as having manufacturers provide transparent data of the carbon footprint at each process of manufacturing. Indeed, this would enable car manufacturers to choose suppliers with a lower carbon footprint. Furthermore, a plan of action should first be made towards increasing the composition of renewable energy to power batteries, enhancing technology to meet recycling and reuse needs, and creating a mechanism for the safe disposal of batteries. 

## **This story is funded by readers like you**

Our non-profit newsroom provides climate coverage free of charge and advertising. Your one-off or monthly donations play a crucial role in supporting our operations, expanding our reach, and maintaining our editorial independence.

[About EO](https://earth.org/about-us/) | [Mission Statement](https://earth.org/mission-statement/) | [Impact & Reach](https://earth.org/impact-and-reach/) | [Write for us](https://earth.org/join-the-team/)

[Donate now](https://earth.org/donations/)

Tagged: [battery production](https://earth.org/tag/battery-production/ "View all posts in battery production") [electric vehicles](https://earth.org/tag/electric-vehicles/ "View all posts in electric vehicles")

## About the Author

![](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%201920%202560'%3E%3C/svg%3E) ![](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/IMG_20160612_132340-scaled.jpg)

#### [Lakshmi R B](https://earth.org/author/lakshmi-r-b/)

![](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%201920%202560'%3E%3C/svg%3E) ![](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/IMG_20160612_132340-scaled.jpg) Lakshmi R B is a sustainability enthusiast based out of India. She graduated from Christ University, India with a master's degree in applied economics and currently works in credit risk management at a private international bank. She additionally runs an Instagram account (tales.and.tails) to promote environmental awareness using the art medium.   
  
[](mailto:)

You Might Also Like

[ ![The Environmental Impact of Fast Fashion, Explained](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20281%20500'%3E%3C/svg%3E) ![The Environmental Impact of Fast Fashion, Explained](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/Leather-Waste-1-Chin-Leong-Teo-1024x683-1-544x306.jpg) ](https://earth.org/fast-fashions-detrimental-effect-on-the-environment/)

[Pollution](https://earth.org/pollution)

### [The Environmental Impact of Fast Fashion, Explained ](https://earth.org/fast-fashions-detrimental-effect-on-the-environment/)

Jan 20th 20256 mins

[ ![10 Companies Called Out For Greenwashing](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20281%20500'%3E%3C/svg%3E) ![10 Companies Called Out For Greenwashing](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/2674736633_1ec0c4c27f_c-544x306.jpg) ](https://earth.org/greenwashing-companies-corporations/)

[Pollution](https://earth.org/pollution)

### [10 Companies Called Out For Greenwashing ](https://earth.org/greenwashing-companies-corporations/)

Jul 17th 20225 mins

[ ![10 Concerning Fast Fashion Waste Statistics](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20281%20500'%3E%3C/svg%3E) ![10 Concerning Fast Fashion Waste Statistics](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Untitled-1024-×-683px-95-544x306.jpg) ](https://earth.org/statistics-about-fast-fashion-waste/)

[Pollution](https://earth.org/pollution)

### [10 Concerning Fast Fashion Waste Statistics ](https://earth.org/statistics-about-fast-fashion-waste/)

Aug 21st 20234 mins

186116 

Subscribe to our newsletter

Hand-picked stories weekly or monthly. We promise, no spam!

[SUBSCRIBE](https://earth.org/earth-org-newsletters/)

![Instagram](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%200%200'%3E%3C/svg%3E)![Instagram](https://hivelife.com//wp-content/images/instagram.svg) @earthorg [Follow Us](https://www.instagram.com/earthorg/)

Earth.Org

  * [About Us](/about-us/)
  * [Mission Statement](/mission-statement/)
  * [Impact & Reach](/impact-and-reach/)
  * [Data Visualisations](/data-visualizations/)
  * [Earth.Org for Teachers](/teachers/)
  * [Earth.Org for Parents](/parents/)
  * [Earth.Org for Kids](/kids/)
  * [Meet the Team](/meet-the-team/)
  * [Join the Team](/join/)
  * [Donate](https://earth.org/donations/)
  * [Global Ambassadors](https://earth.org/global-ambassadors/)
  * [Terms](/terms/) | [Privacy policy](/privacy/) | [Cookies](/cookies/)
  * (C) Earth.Org



Follow us

  * [Facebook](https://www.facebook.com/earth.org)
  * [Instagram](https://www.instagram.com/earthorg/)
  * [Linkedin](https://www.linkedin.com/company/earth-org/)
  * [Twitter](https://twitter.com/EarthOrg)
  * [Youtube](https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCiKZx3j6WlIoQBU6h7WqF7A/videos)
  * [Google News](https://news.google.com/publications/CAAqBwgKML2NkgswhbinAw?oc=3&ceid=US:en)

Support us

  *   * [Partnering](/partnering/)
  *   * [Fund Our Mission](/fund-our-mission/)
  *   * [Supporters](/supporters/)
  * [Join the EO Movement](https://movement.earth.org/)

Submit Content

  *   * [NGO News Submissions](https://earth.org/newswire/)
  * 


Contribute

  * [EO Photographers](/photographers/)
  * [EO 2024 Photography Competition](https://earth.org/photocompetition/)
  * [Conservationists](https://earth.org/conservationists/)
  * [Volunteer](/volunteer/)
  * [Write for us](/write-for-us/)
  * [Edit for us](/edit-for-us/)
  * [Help with Data Science](/help-data-science/)

Kids.Earth.Org

  * [Kids.Earth.Org website](https://kids.earth.org/)
  * [Schools Get involved](https://kids.earth.org/schools/)
  * [Schools Sign Up](https://kids.earth.org/schools/schools-registration/)



Contact

  * [+852 2110 4370](tel:+85221104370 )
  * [Email: contact[at]earth.org](/contact)  

  * Earth.Org Ltd  

  * The Hive on Seven  
7F Cheung Hing Industrial Building  
Kennedy Town  
Hong Kong



Keep freshly informed

Get the best of Earth.Org  
Get focused newsletters especially designed to be concise and easy to digest.  


  * Email*

  * Subscription OPtions

    * TOP STORY ROUNDUPOnce a week
    * MONTHLY OVERVIEWOnce a month

  * Comments

This field is for validation purposes and should be left unchanged.




X 

Share this article  
Each Share makes a difference and potentially gets our article in front of many times the number without shares.

[![Share on Facebook](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20310%20310'%3E%3C/svg%3E)![Share on Facebook](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/themes/hivelife-wp/img/facebook-01.svg)](https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fearth.org%2Fenvironmental-impact-of-battery-production%2F)[![Tweet about this on Twitter](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20310%20310'%3E%3C/svg%3E)![Tweet about this on Twitter](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/themes/hivelife-wp/img/twitter-01.svg)](https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?url=https%3A%2F%2Fearth.org%2Fenvironmental-impact-of-battery-production%2F)[![Email to someone](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20330%20330'%3E%3C/svg%3E)![Email to someone](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/themes/hivelife-wp/img/email-01.svg)](mailto:?subject=The Environmental Impact of Battery Production for Electric Vehicles&body=%20https%3A%2F%2Fearth.org%2Fenvironmental-impact-of-battery-production%2F)[![Share on LinkedIn](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20310%20310'%3E%3C/svg%3E)![Share on LinkedIn](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/themes/hivelife-wp/img/linkedin-01.svg)](https://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&url=https%3A%2F%2Fearth.org%2Fenvironmental-impact-of-battery-production%2F&title=The Environmental Impact of Battery Production for Electric Vehicles&summary=&source=)![Share URL](data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%20442%20442'%3E%3C/svg%3E)![Share URL](https://u4d2z7k9.rocketcdn.me/wp-content/themes/hivelife-wp/img/chain-01.svg)

https%3A%2F%2Fearth.org%2Fenvironmental-impact-of-battery-production%2F

 

Boost this article  
By donating us $100, $50 or subscribe to Boosting $10/month - we can get this article and others in front of tens of thousands of specially targeted readers. This targeted Boosting - **helps us to reach wider audiences** - aiming to convince the unconvinced, to inform the uninformed, to enlighten the dogmatic.

[donate](https://earth.org/donations/)

X 


url: http://arxiv.org/abs/2104.14287v1
title: [2104.14287v1] Electric cars, assessment of green nature vis a vis conventional fuel driven cars
scrape_date: 2025-02-27T18:06:11.926128
content_type: markdown
hash: fd6ffccc1a471d7cd3dbe479b6871b46da46ccd7e863588238114c461fcc9ad8
content:
Skip to main content

[![Cornell University](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/cu/cornell-reduced-white-SMALL.svg)](https://www.cornell.edu/)

We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, [member institutions](https://info.arxiv.org/about/ourmembers.html), and all contributors. [Donate](https://info.arxiv.org/about/donate.html)

[](/IgnoreMe)

[![arxiv logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/arxiv-logo-one-color-white.svg)](/) > [cond-mat](/list/cond-mat/recent) > arXiv:2104.14287v1 

[Help](https://info.arxiv.org/help) | [Advanced Search](https://arxiv.org/search/advanced)

All fields Title Author Abstract Comments Journal reference ACM classification MSC classification Report number arXiv identifier DOI ORCID arXiv author ID Help pages Full text

Search

[![arXiv logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/arxiv-logomark-small-white.svg)](https://arxiv.org/)

[ ![Cornell University Logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/cu/cornell-reduced-white-SMALL.svg) ](https://www.cornell.edu/)

open search

GO

open navigation menu

## quick links

  * [Login](https://arxiv.org/login)
  * [Help Pages](https://info.arxiv.org/help)
  * [About](https://info.arxiv.org/about)



# Condensed Matter > Materials Science

**arXiv:2104.14287v1** (cond-mat) 

[Submitted on 29 Apr 2021]

# Title:Electric cars, assessment of green nature vis a vis conventional fuel driven cars

Authors:[Satish Vitta](https://arxiv.org/search/cond-mat?searchtype=author&query=Vitta,+S)

View a PDF of the paper titled Electric cars, assessment of green nature vis a vis conventional fuel driven cars, by Satish Vitta

[View PDF](/pdf/2104.14287v1)

> Abstract:A comprehensive analysis of energy requirements and emissions associated with electric vehicles, ranging from mining and making the rare-earth magnets required in electric motor to assembling the Li-ion battery, including charging and regular running of the electric vehicles has been performed. A simple, analytical procedure is used to determine the embodied energy and emissions. The objective is to assess the potential of electric cars to reduce green house gases emission to limit global warming to < 1.5 degrees C by the Year 2050 as per IPCC recommendations and also to compare them with conventional fuel driven cars. The combined embodied energy for Nd- and Dy-metals production which are required in electric motors and battery assembly for 150 million cars, projected to be on the road in the year 2050 is ~ 1500 TWh and the CO2 emissions is found to be > 600 MT. The emissions includes carbon intensity of electrical energy required to run these electric vehicles. The projected emissions due to fossil fuels, gasoline production as well as burning it in combustion engines however is only 412 MT, far less than that due to electric vehicles. The main contributor to emissions from electric vehicles is the battery assembling process which releases ~ 379 MT of CO2-e gases. The emissions from both electric vehicles as well as combustion engine vehicles scale linearly with the number of vehicles, indicating that a breakeven is not possible with the currently available manufacturing technologies. These results clearly show that significant technological developments have to take place in electric vehicles so that they become environmentally better placed compared to combustion engine based cars. 

Comments: | 27 pages, 4 figures, 8 tables  
---|---  
Subjects: |  Materials Science (cond-mat.mtrl-sci)  
Cite as: | [arXiv:2104.14287](https://arxiv.org/abs/2104.14287) [cond-mat.mtrl-sci]  
  | (or  [arXiv:2104.14287v1](https://arxiv.org/abs/2104.14287v1) [cond-mat.mtrl-sci] for this version)   
  |  <https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2104.14287> Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite  
  
## Submission history

From: Satish Vitta [[view email](/show-email/d20ba167/2104.14287)]   
**[v1]** Thu, 29 Apr 2021 12:15:05 UTC (518 KB)  


Full-text links:

## Access Paper:

View a PDF of the paper titled Electric cars, assessment of green nature vis a vis conventional fuel driven cars, by Satish Vitta

  * [View PDF](/pdf/2104.14287v1)
  * [Other Formats](/format/2104.14287v1)



[ ![license icon](https://arxiv.org/icons/licenses/by-nc-sa-4.0.png) view license ](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ "Rights to this article")

Current browse context: 

cond-mat.mtrl-sci

[< prev](/prevnext?id=2104.14287&function=prev&context=cond-mat.mtrl-sci "previous in cond-mat.mtrl-sci \(accesskey p\)")   |   [next >](/prevnext?id=2104.14287&function=next&context=cond-mat.mtrl-sci "next in cond-mat.mtrl-sci \(accesskey n\)")   


[new](/list/cond-mat.mtrl-sci/new) |  [recent](/list/cond-mat.mtrl-sci/recent) | [2021-04](/list/cond-mat.mtrl-sci/2021-04)

Change to browse by: 

[cond-mat](/abs/2104.14287?context=cond-mat)  


### References & Citations

  * [NASA ADS](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/arXiv:2104.14287)
  * [Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?arxiv_id=2104.14287)
  * [Semantic Scholar](https://api.semanticscholar.org/arXiv:2104.14287)



[a](/static/browse/0.3.4/css/cite.css) export BibTeX citation Loading...

## BibTeX formatted citation

×

loading...

Data provided by: 

### Bookmark

[ ![BibSonomy logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/social/bibsonomy.png) ](http://www.bibsonomy.org/BibtexHandler?requTask=upload&url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2104.14287&description=Electric cars, assessment of green nature vis a vis conventional fuel driven cars "Bookmark on BibSonomy") [ ![Reddit logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/social/reddit.png) ](https://reddit.com/submit?url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2104.14287&title=Electric cars, assessment of green nature vis a vis conventional fuel driven cars "Bookmark on Reddit")

Bibliographic Tools

# Bibliographic and Citation Tools

Bibliographic Explorer Toggle

Bibliographic Explorer _([What is the Explorer?](https://info.arxiv.org/labs/showcase.html#arxiv-bibliographic-explorer))_

Connected Papers Toggle

Connected Papers _([What is Connected Papers?](https://www.connectedpapers.com/about))_

Litmaps Toggle

Litmaps _([What is Litmaps?](https://www.litmaps.co/))_

scite.ai Toggle

scite Smart Citations _([What are Smart Citations?](https://www.scite.ai/))_

Code, Data, Media

# Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article

alphaXiv Toggle

alphaXiv _([What is alphaXiv?](https://alphaxiv.org/))_

Links to Code Toggle

CatalyzeX Code Finder for Papers _([What is CatalyzeX?](https://www.catalyzex.com))_

DagsHub Toggle

DagsHub _([What is DagsHub?](https://dagshub.com/))_

GotitPub Toggle

Gotit.pub _([What is GotitPub?](http://gotit.pub/faq))_

Huggingface Toggle

Hugging Face _([What is Huggingface?](https://huggingface.co/huggingface))_

Links to Code Toggle

Papers with Code _([What is Papers with Code?](https://paperswithcode.com/))_

ScienceCast Toggle

ScienceCast _([What is ScienceCast?](https://sciencecast.org/welcome))_

Demos

# Demos

Replicate Toggle

Replicate _([What is Replicate?](https://replicate.com/docs/arxiv/about))_

Spaces Toggle

Hugging Face Spaces _([What is Spaces?](https://huggingface.co/docs/hub/spaces))_

Spaces Toggle

TXYZ.AI _([What is TXYZ.AI?](https://txyz.ai))_

Related Papers

# Recommenders and Search Tools

Link to Influence Flower

Influence Flower _([What are Influence Flowers?](https://influencemap.cmlab.dev/))_

Core recommender toggle

CORE Recommender _([What is CORE?](https://core.ac.uk/services/recommender))_

IArxiv recommender toggle

IArxiv Recommender _([What is IArxiv?](https://iarxiv.org/about))_

  * Author
  * Venue
  * Institution
  * Topic



About arXivLabs 

# arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators

arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website.

Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them.

Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? [**Learn more about arXivLabs**](https://info.arxiv.org/labs/index.html).

[Which authors of this paper are endorsers?](/auth/show-endorsers/2104.14287) | [Disable MathJax](javascript:setMathjaxCookie\(\)) ([What is MathJax?](https://info.arxiv.org/help/mathjax.html)) 

  * [About](https://info.arxiv.org/about)
  * [Help](https://info.arxiv.org/help)



  * contact arXivClick here to contact arXiv [ Contact](https://info.arxiv.org/help/contact.html)
  * subscribe to arXiv mailingsClick here to subscribe [ Subscribe](https://info.arxiv.org/help/subscribe)



  * [Copyright](https://info.arxiv.org/help/license/index.html)
  * [Privacy Policy](https://info.arxiv.org/help/policies/privacy_policy.html)



  * [Web Accessibility Assistance](https://info.arxiv.org/help/web_accessibility.html)
  * [arXiv Operational Status ](https://status.arxiv.org)  
Get status notifications via [email](https://subscribe.sorryapp.com/24846f03/email/new) or [slack](https://subscribe.sorryapp.com/24846f03/slack/new)


url: http://arxiv.org/abs/2410.09330v1
scrape_date: 2025-02-27T18:06:11.901871
content_type: markdown
hash: a4e30c4faff7d2235c60158228775d2a517f42c9186a63ae273a5c8ff3be086e
title:
[2410.09330v1] A Framework to Estimate Life Cycle Emissions for Vehicle-Integrated Photovoltaic Systems

content:
Skip to main content

[![Cornell University](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/cu/cornell-reduced-white-SMALL.svg)](https://www.cornell.edu/)

We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, [member institutions](https://info.arxiv.org/about/ourmembers.html), and all contributors. [Donate](https://info.arxiv.org/about/donate.html)

[](/IgnoreMe)

[![arxiv logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/arxiv-logo-one-color-white.svg)](/) > [eess](/list/eess/recent) > arXiv:2410.09330v1 

[Help](https://info.arxiv.org/help) | [Advanced Search](https://arxiv.org/search/advanced)

All fields Title Author Abstract Comments Journal reference ACM classification MSC classification Report number arXiv identifier DOI ORCID arXiv author ID Help pages Full text

Search

[![arXiv logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/arxiv-logomark-small-white.svg)](https://arxiv.org/)

[ ![Cornell University Logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/cu/cornell-reduced-white-SMALL.svg) ](https://www.cornell.edu/)

open search

GO

open navigation menu

## quick links

  * [Login](https://arxiv.org/login)
  * [Help Pages](https://info.arxiv.org/help)
  * [About](https://info.arxiv.org/about)



# Electrical Engineering and Systems Science > Systems and Control

**arXiv:2410.09330v1** (eess) 

[Submitted on 12 Oct 2024]

# Title:A Framework to Estimate Life Cycle Emissions for Vehicle-Integrated Photovoltaic Systems

Authors:[Maurizio Clemente](https://arxiv.org/search/eess?searchtype=author&query=Clemente,+M), [Luuk van Sundert](https://arxiv.org/search/eess?searchtype=author&query=van+Sundert,+L), [Mauro Salazar](https://arxiv.org/search/eess?searchtype=author&query=Salazar,+M), [Theo Hofman](https://arxiv.org/search/eess?searchtype=author&query=Hofman,+T)

View a PDF of the paper titled A Framework to Estimate Life Cycle Emissions for Vehicle-Integrated Photovoltaic Systems, by Maurizio Clemente and 2 other authors

[View PDF](/pdf/2410.09330v1) [HTML (experimental)](https://arxiv.org/html/2410.09330v1)

> Abstract:This paper presents a framework to estimate the environmental impact of solar electric vehicles, accounting for the emissions caused by photovoltaic system production as well as vehicle use. We leverage a cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment to estimate the greenhouse gas emissions of the vehicle-integrated photovoltaic system, from the raw material extraction to the final panel assembly, including the effect of the electricity mix both at the factory location and in the country of use. %the vehicle's life cycle, considering both Furthermore, we modify an existing optimization framework for battery electric vehicles to optimally design a solar electric vehicle and estimate its energy consumption. We showcase our framework by analyzing a case study where the mono-crystalline silicon extraction and refinement processes occur in China, while the final assembly of the panel is in The Netherlands, generating 118 kg of CO2 equivalents per square meter of solar panel. The results suggest that it is generally beneficial to operate solar electric vehicles in countries with a high irradiation index. However, when the local electricity mix already displays a low carbon intensity, the additional emissions introduced by the panel are unnecessary, requiring a longer vehicle lifetime to reach an advantageous emission balance. 

Comments: | 6 pages, 8 figures, 2024 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, Best Paper Award  
---|---  
Subjects: |  Systems and Control (eess.SY)  
MSC classes: | 00B25  
ACM classes: | J.2  
Cite as: | [arXiv:2410.09330](https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.09330) [eess.SY]  
  | (or  [arXiv:2410.09330v1](https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.09330v1) [eess.SY] for this version)   
  |  <https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2410.09330> Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite  
  
## Submission history

From: Maurizio Clemente [[view email](/show-email/9fb95c15/2410.09330)]   
**[v1]** Sat, 12 Oct 2024 02:27:19 UTC (11,791 KB)  


Full-text links:

## Access Paper:

View a PDF of the paper titled A Framework to Estimate Life Cycle Emissions for Vehicle-Integrated Photovoltaic Systems, by Maurizio Clemente and 2 other authors

  * [View PDF](/pdf/2410.09330v1)
  * [HTML (experimental)](https://arxiv.org/html/2410.09330v1)
  * [TeX Source](/src/2410.09330v1)
  * [Other Formats](/format/2410.09330v1)



[ ![license icon](https://arxiv.org/icons/licenses/by-nc-nd-4.0.png) view license ](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ "Rights to this article")

Current browse context: 

eess.SY

[< prev](/prevnext?id=2410.09330&function=prev&context=eess.SY "previous in eess.SY \(accesskey p\)")   |   [next >](/prevnext?id=2410.09330&function=next&context=eess.SY "next in eess.SY \(accesskey n\)")   


[new](/list/eess.SY/new) |  [recent](/list/eess.SY/recent) | [2024-10](/list/eess.SY/2024-10)

Change to browse by: 

[cs](/abs/2410.09330?context=cs)  
[cs.SY](/abs/2410.09330?context=cs.SY)  
[eess](/abs/2410.09330?context=eess)  


### References & Citations

  * [NASA ADS](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/arXiv:2410.09330)
  * [Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?arxiv_id=2410.09330)
  * [Semantic Scholar](https://api.semanticscholar.org/arXiv:2410.09330)



[a](/static/browse/0.3.4/css/cite.css) export BibTeX citation Loading...

## BibTeX formatted citation

×

loading...

Data provided by: 

### Bookmark

[ ![BibSonomy logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/social/bibsonomy.png) ](http://www.bibsonomy.org/BibtexHandler?requTask=upload&url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.09330&description=A Framework to Estimate Life Cycle Emissions for Vehicle-Integrated Photovoltaic Systems "Bookmark on BibSonomy") [ ![Reddit logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/social/reddit.png) ](https://reddit.com/submit?url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.09330&title=A Framework to Estimate Life Cycle Emissions for Vehicle-Integrated Photovoltaic Systems "Bookmark on Reddit")

Bibliographic Tools

# Bibliographic and Citation Tools

Bibliographic Explorer Toggle

Bibliographic Explorer _([What is the Explorer?](https://info.arxiv.org/labs/showcase.html#arxiv-bibliographic-explorer))_

Connected Papers Toggle

Connected Papers _([What is Connected Papers?](https://www.connectedpapers.com/about))_

Litmaps Toggle

Litmaps _([What is Litmaps?](https://www.litmaps.co/))_

scite.ai Toggle

scite Smart Citations _([What are Smart Citations?](https://www.scite.ai/))_

Code, Data, Media

# Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article

alphaXiv Toggle

alphaXiv _([What is alphaXiv?](https://alphaxiv.org/))_

Links to Code Toggle

CatalyzeX Code Finder for Papers _([What is CatalyzeX?](https://www.catalyzex.com))_

DagsHub Toggle

DagsHub _([What is DagsHub?](https://dagshub.com/))_

GotitPub Toggle

Gotit.pub _([What is GotitPub?](http://gotit.pub/faq))_

Huggingface Toggle

Hugging Face _([What is Huggingface?](https://huggingface.co/huggingface))_

Links to Code Toggle

Papers with Code _([What is Papers with Code?](https://paperswithcode.com/))_

ScienceCast Toggle

ScienceCast _([What is ScienceCast?](https://sciencecast.org/welcome))_

Demos

# Demos

Replicate Toggle

Replicate _([What is Replicate?](https://replicate.com/docs/arxiv/about))_

Spaces Toggle

Hugging Face Spaces _([What is Spaces?](https://huggingface.co/docs/hub/spaces))_

Spaces Toggle

TXYZ.AI _([What is TXYZ.AI?](https://txyz.ai))_

Related Papers

# Recommenders and Search Tools

Link to Influence Flower

Influence Flower _([What are Influence Flowers?](https://influencemap.cmlab.dev/))_

Core recommender toggle

CORE Recommender _([What is CORE?](https://core.ac.uk/services/recommender))_

  * Author
  * Venue
  * Institution
  * Topic



About arXivLabs 

# arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators

arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website.

Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them.

Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? [**Learn more about arXivLabs**](https://info.arxiv.org/labs/index.html).

[Which authors of this paper are endorsers?](/auth/show-endorsers/2410.09330) | [Disable MathJax](javascript:setMathjaxCookie\(\)) ([What is MathJax?](https://info.arxiv.org/help/mathjax.html)) 

  * [About](https://info.arxiv.org/about)
  * [Help](https://info.arxiv.org/help)



  * contact arXivClick here to contact arXiv [ Contact](https://info.arxiv.org/help/contact.html)
  * subscribe to arXiv mailingsClick here to subscribe [ Subscribe](https://info.arxiv.org/help/subscribe)



  * [Copyright](https://info.arxiv.org/help/license/index.html)
  * [Privacy Policy](https://info.arxiv.org/help/policies/privacy_policy.html)



  * [Web Accessibility Assistance](https://info.arxiv.org/help/web_accessibility.html)
  * [arXiv Operational Status ](https://status.arxiv.org)  
Get status notifications via [email](https://subscribe.sorryapp.com/24846f03/email/new) or [slack](https://subscribe.sorryapp.com/24846f03/slack/new)



  *[MSC]: Mathematical Subject Classification
  *[ACM]: Association of Computing Machinery Classification


url: http://arxiv.org/abs/2301.03779v1
scrape_date: 2025-02-27T18:06:11.901878
content_type: markdown
hash: 978a5547017d732ec672450700822d12ddd3a8e150f20bac795146f310418b5b
title:
[2301.03779v1] Estimating required flexibility for secure distribution grid operation considering the uncertainties of EV and PV

content:
Skip to main content

[![Cornell University](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/cu/cornell-reduced-white-SMALL.svg)](https://www.cornell.edu/)

We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, [member institutions](https://info.arxiv.org/about/ourmembers.html), and all contributors. [Donate](https://info.arxiv.org/about/donate.html)

[](/IgnoreMe)

[![arxiv logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/arxiv-logo-one-color-white.svg)](/) > [eess](/list/eess/recent) > arXiv:2301.03779v1 

[Help](https://info.arxiv.org/help) | [Advanced Search](https://arxiv.org/search/advanced)

All fields Title Author Abstract Comments Journal reference ACM classification MSC classification Report number arXiv identifier DOI ORCID arXiv author ID Help pages Full text

Search

[![arXiv logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/arxiv-logomark-small-white.svg)](https://arxiv.org/)

[ ![Cornell University Logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/cu/cornell-reduced-white-SMALL.svg) ](https://www.cornell.edu/)

open search

GO

open navigation menu

## quick links

  * [Login](https://arxiv.org/login)
  * [Help Pages](https://info.arxiv.org/help)
  * [About](https://info.arxiv.org/about)



# Electrical Engineering and Systems Science > Systems and Control

**arXiv:2301.03779v1** (eess) 

[Submitted on 10 Jan 2023]

# Title:Estimating required flexibility for secure distribution grid operation considering the uncertainties of EV and PV

Authors:[Manijeh Alipour](https://arxiv.org/search/eess?searchtype=author&query=Alipour,+M), [Omid Alizadeh-Mousavi](https://arxiv.org/search/eess?searchtype=author&query=Alizadeh-Mousavi,+O)

View a PDF of the paper titled Estimating required flexibility for secure distribution grid operation considering the uncertainties of EV and PV, by Manijeh Alipour and 1 other authors

[View PDF](/pdf/2301.03779v1)

> Abstract:Renewable energy productions and electrification of mobility are promising solutions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Their effective integration in a power grid encounters several challenges. The uncertain nature of renewable energy productions as well as stochastic consumptions of electric vehicles introduce remarkable intermittency to a distribution grid and results in bi-uncertain characteristics of both supply and demand sides. One way to verify the secure grid operation within acceptable voltage and loading levels is to assess its required flexibility considering possible boundaries of uncertain variables. In this paper, first a comprehensive linear model of distribution grid considering all pertaining constraints is presented. Then, a flexibility estimation technique is proposed based on the feasibility study of the uncertain space of photovoltaic power productions and load containing electric vehicles. The proposed methodology uses grid monitoring data to determine grid state and to model uncertain parameters. The model is applied on a real low voltage (LV) system equipped with grid monitoring devices. 

Comments: | 4 pages, 7 figures, CIRED workshop on E-mobility and power distribution systems  
---|---  
Subjects: |  Systems and Control (eess.SY)  
ACM classes: | G.1; D.4  
Cite as: | [arXiv:2301.03779](https://arxiv.org/abs/2301.03779) [eess.SY]  
  | (or  [arXiv:2301.03779v1](https://arxiv.org/abs/2301.03779v1) [eess.SY] for this version)   
  |  <https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2301.03779> Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite  
Journal reference: | CIRED Porto Workshop 2022: E-mobility and power distribution systems.pp. 770-773, Vol. 2022. IET, 2022  
Related DOI:  | <https://doi.org/10.1049/icp.2022.0815> Focus to learn more DOI(s) linking to related resources   
  
## Submission history

From: Manijeh Alipour [[view email](/show-email/d6fd558e/2301.03779)]   
**[v1]** Tue, 10 Jan 2023 04:14:09 UTC (356 KB)  


Full-text links:

## Access Paper:

View a PDF of the paper titled Estimating required flexibility for secure distribution grid operation considering the uncertainties of EV and PV, by Manijeh Alipour and 1 other authors

  * [View PDF](/pdf/2301.03779v1)
  * [Other Formats](/format/2301.03779v1)



[view license](http://arxiv.org/licenses/nonexclusive-distrib/1.0/ "Rights to this article")

Current browse context: 

eess.SY

[< prev](/prevnext?id=2301.03779&function=prev&context=eess.SY "previous in eess.SY \(accesskey p\)")   |   [next >](/prevnext?id=2301.03779&function=next&context=eess.SY "next in eess.SY \(accesskey n\)")   


[new](/list/eess.SY/new) |  [recent](/list/eess.SY/recent) | [2023-01](/list/eess.SY/2023-01)

Change to browse by: 

[cs](/abs/2301.03779?context=cs)  
[cs.SY](/abs/2301.03779?context=cs.SY)  
[eess](/abs/2301.03779?context=eess)  


### References & Citations

  * [NASA ADS](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/arXiv:2301.03779)
  * [Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?arxiv_id=2301.03779)
  * [Semantic Scholar](https://api.semanticscholar.org/arXiv:2301.03779)



[a](/static/browse/0.3.4/css/cite.css) export BibTeX citation Loading...

## BibTeX formatted citation

×

loading...

Data provided by: 

### Bookmark

[ ![BibSonomy logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/social/bibsonomy.png) ](http://www.bibsonomy.org/BibtexHandler?requTask=upload&url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2301.03779&description=Estimating required flexibility for secure distribution grid operation considering the uncertainties of EV and PV "Bookmark on BibSonomy") [ ![Reddit logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/social/reddit.png) ](https://reddit.com/submit?url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2301.03779&title=Estimating required flexibility for secure distribution grid operation considering the uncertainties of EV and PV "Bookmark on Reddit")

Bibliographic Tools

# Bibliographic and Citation Tools

Bibliographic Explorer Toggle

Bibliographic Explorer _([What is the Explorer?](https://info.arxiv.org/labs/showcase.html#arxiv-bibliographic-explorer))_

Connected Papers Toggle

Connected Papers _([What is Connected Papers?](https://www.connectedpapers.com/about))_

Litmaps Toggle

Litmaps _([What is Litmaps?](https://www.litmaps.co/))_

scite.ai Toggle

scite Smart Citations _([What are Smart Citations?](https://www.scite.ai/))_

Code, Data, Media

# Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article

alphaXiv Toggle

alphaXiv _([What is alphaXiv?](https://alphaxiv.org/))_

Links to Code Toggle

CatalyzeX Code Finder for Papers _([What is CatalyzeX?](https://www.catalyzex.com))_

DagsHub Toggle

DagsHub _([What is DagsHub?](https://dagshub.com/))_

GotitPub Toggle

Gotit.pub _([What is GotitPub?](http://gotit.pub/faq))_

Huggingface Toggle

Hugging Face _([What is Huggingface?](https://huggingface.co/huggingface))_

Links to Code Toggle

Papers with Code _([What is Papers with Code?](https://paperswithcode.com/))_

ScienceCast Toggle

ScienceCast _([What is ScienceCast?](https://sciencecast.org/welcome))_

Demos

# Demos

Replicate Toggle

Replicate _([What is Replicate?](https://replicate.com/docs/arxiv/about))_

Spaces Toggle

Hugging Face Spaces _([What is Spaces?](https://huggingface.co/docs/hub/spaces))_

Spaces Toggle

TXYZ.AI _([What is TXYZ.AI?](https://txyz.ai))_

Related Papers

# Recommenders and Search Tools

Link to Influence Flower

Influence Flower _([What are Influence Flowers?](https://influencemap.cmlab.dev/))_

Core recommender toggle

CORE Recommender _([What is CORE?](https://core.ac.uk/services/recommender))_

  * Author
  * Venue
  * Institution
  * Topic



About arXivLabs 

# arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators

arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website.

Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them.

Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? [**Learn more about arXivLabs**](https://info.arxiv.org/labs/index.html).

[Which authors of this paper are endorsers?](/auth/show-endorsers/2301.03779) | [Disable MathJax](javascript:setMathjaxCookie\(\)) ([What is MathJax?](https://info.arxiv.org/help/mathjax.html)) 

  * [About](https://info.arxiv.org/about)
  * [Help](https://info.arxiv.org/help)



  * contact arXivClick here to contact arXiv [ Contact](https://info.arxiv.org/help/contact.html)
  * subscribe to arXiv mailingsClick here to subscribe [ Subscribe](https://info.arxiv.org/help/subscribe)



  * [Copyright](https://info.arxiv.org/help/license/index.html)
  * [Privacy Policy](https://info.arxiv.org/help/policies/privacy_policy.html)



  * [Web Accessibility Assistance](https://info.arxiv.org/help/web_accessibility.html)
  * [arXiv Operational Status ](https://status.arxiv.org)  
Get status notifications via [email](https://subscribe.sorryapp.com/24846f03/email/new) or [slack](https://subscribe.sorryapp.com/24846f03/slack/new)



  *[ACM]: Association of Computing Machinery Classification
  *[Related DOI]: Digital Object Identifier


url: https://www.sustain.life/blog/electric-vehicles-environment
title: Electric Cars | Environmental Pros and Cons | Workiva Carbon
scrape_date: 2025-02-27T18:06:12.018754
content_type: markdown
hash: 0db9666fc28b0c74b3adc1b5dc576dd650722ab5737f1544a156104df5c63bf1
content:
Sustain.Life has been acquired by Workiva, the world’s leading cloud platform for assured, integrated reporting.

[Learn more](http://www.sustain.life/blog/news-sustain-life-has-been-acquired-by-workiva)

[![Workiva Carbon logo](https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/6266b5e20215f61058171191/66748ca1c88dc0b373f8978d_workiva-carbon-logo-tag-steel.svg)](/)

Product

# Core capabilities

[Measure](/measure)

Track your emissions

[Manage](/manage)

Reduce your climate impact

[Report](/report)

Communicate and disclose progress 

[Partnerships](/partnerships)[Pricing](/pricing-v2)[Demo](/demo)

# Highlights

[Reporting & disclosures](/features/sustainability-reporting)

Simplify the process across frameworks

[Purchased goods & services](/features/purchased-goods-services)

Automate supply chain emissions calculations

[Carbon accounting](/sustainability-management-platform)

Calculate & track emissions

[Emissions targets](/features/emissions-targets)

Set science-based targets

[Supply chain management](/supply-chain)

Address supplier risks

[Data quality](/features/data-quality)

Automatically fill missing data

[Auditing & verification](/features/auditing-verification-third-party-assurance)

Ensure accurate climate reporting

[APIs](https://developer.sustain.life/?_ga=2.6481841.2045766291.1690206139-1793760492.1685736465)

Integrate with our climate tech

# Designed for

[Corporate ESG teams](/sustainability-esg-teams)

Collaborate across your company

[ESG consultants](/sustainability-consultants)

Grow your consultancy

[Finance & accounting](/finance-accounting)

Quantify climate action

[PE & VC firms](/private-equity-and-vc-firms)

Measure portfolio performance

[Event production](/events-experiences)

Create carbon neutral events

Resources

# Resources

[Blog](/blog)

News, insights, and thought leadership

[Disclosure assessment](/disclosure-assessment)

Guide to your required disclosures

[Ebooks & whitepapers](/resources/esg-regulations-frameworks)

Download detailed guides & reports

[Events](https://www.sustain.life/blog-tags/webinar)

Webinars and more

[The Week in Sustainability](https://www.sustain.life/blog-tags/week-in-sustainability)

Our weekly video podcast

[Partnerships](/partnerships)

[Sign in](https://app.sustain.life/?_gl=1*q5i2pf*_ga*MTU1OTgxOTg0OC4xNjMzNzAyNzY1*_ga_4HH0ERCKY0*MTY1MTUwMjQ3OS4zMy4wLjE2NTE1MDI0NzkuNjA.&_ga=2.186069289.1438148479.1651502480-1559819848.1633702765#/signIn)[Demo](/demo)

![](https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/6266b5e20215f61058171191/6272db3e815058b85df6a3c1_close-aqua900.svg)![](https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/6266b5e20215f61058171191/6272db3e6d2d7fccd40e8a2e_menu-aqua900.svg)

# Are electric vehicles better for car-buyers and the environment?

Updated: 

March 14, 2023

Article

EVs produce fewer emissions, but that’s not the whole story.

![electric vehicles charging at gas station](https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/62733f1361e2ad64f8790984/62740196a573d72bacf7f8ae_622a722cc91e3569a1c7f8be_sustain.life-electric-vehicles-environment.jpeg)

The electric vehicle (EV) industry is booming, and it’s got a lot to do with the state of gasoline prices plus concerns about air pollution and climate change.

Gas prices are unpredictable and, as we’ve seen recently, fluctuate significantly depending on the state of [global affairs](https://www.npr.org/2022/03/07/1084893419/gas-prices-surge-to-above-4-a-gallon-oil-russia-ukraine-antony-blinken). Price-per-gallon aside, gas-powered vehicles are responsible for significant greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. According to [Statista](https://www.statista.com/statistics/1185535/transport-carbon-dioxide-emissions-breakdown/), passenger vehicles account for 41% of all global CO2 emissions in the transportation sector.

## Calculate your carbon footprint

Measurement is the first step on the path toward net-zero.

[Request a demo](/demo)

![Sustain.Life Leaf Logo](https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/6266b5e20215f61058171191/627342fbd3a4ae61db087790_sustain.life-leaf.svg)

And all the recent attention surrounding [EVs](https://www.lemonade.com/car/explained/how-do-electric-cars-work/) isn’t just thanks to Tesla—established automotive companies have responded to the increased demand for fuel alternatives. Audi, Ford, Kia, and new entrants like Rivian have hopped on the EV train, launching new models in 2022.  


If part of you thinks EVs are a fleeting fad, think again. [It’s expected ](https://www.cnbc.com/2021/11/30/auto-executives-say-more-than-half-of-us-car-sales-will-be-evs-by-2030-kpmg-survey-shows.html)that 52% of new car sales will be all-electric by 2030. With the relative environmental friendliness compared to gas-powered alternatives, you may be wondering if now’s the time to invest in one. In this guide, we’ll help you decide whether an EV is right for you and the environment.

## **How do EVs work?**

Most vehicles use internal combustion engines powered by gasoline or diesel. EVs rely on [electric](https://www.sustain.life/blog/calculate-carbon-emissions-electricity) motors, and their power is stored in large batteries built into each vehicle.

Charging aside, EV production creates carbon emissions, too. According to an ICCT report, EV battery production is associated with between 56 and 494 kg of CO2 per kilowatt-hour of battery capacity (kg CO2/kWh). To put things into perspective, that’s about 150–1,200 miles driven by an average passenger vehicle. And with an average capacity of 43 kilowatt-hours, simply producing an EV battery produces about the same amount of carbon emissions as driving a gasoline car about 50,000 miles. EV batteries also contain mined components and raw materials like lithium and nickel and have a limited lifespan—two factors that contribute to their embodied carbon footprint.  


All that said, [it has been estimated](https://www.forbes.com/wheels/news/electric-cars-cleaner-than-gas-cars/#:~:text=On%20average%2C%20the%20reduction%20was%20about%2050%20percent%2C%20though%20some%20small%20gas%20cars%E2%80%94the%20Fiat%20500%20and%20Ford%20Focus%E2%80%94did%20comparatively%20well%20in%20the%20results%20because%20of%20their%20high%20levels%20of%20efficiency.) that electric cars are roughly 50% better for the environment than traditional gas-powered cars. With [over 10 million](https://www.iea.org/reports/electric-vehicles#:~:text=After%20a%20decade%20of%20rapid,with%20only%204.6%25%20in%202020.) electric vehicles already on the road, the world has come a long way to reduce its transportation emissions, but we still have a long way to go.  


## **Pros and cons of EVs**

There are a lot of factors to weigh when deciding whether or not to invest in an EV. Let’s examine the most common benefits and drawbacks.

![Pros and cons of EVs](https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/62733f1361e2ad64f8790984/6273e9b17470bd28593f6c2e_622a6a4e9b99256702d8f4ef_sustain.life-electric-vehicle-pros-cons.jpeg)

### ‍  
**Pros**

**• Generally environmentally friendly** , especially compared to gasoline vehicles, which are responsible for 41% of all global transportation CO2 emissions. Traditional internal combustion engines also release significant amounts of carbon dioxide, GHGs, and pollutants like nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur oxides (SOx), which are hazardous to human health and the environment. EVs don’t emit GHGs during operation.

**• Less expensive fuel.** Even in states with high electricity rates, like California, where the average cost for a [kilowatt-hour](https://www.electricrate.com/electricity-rates-by-state/) (kWh) of electricity is over 21 cents, you can charge an electric vehicle for less than half the cost of fueling up at the gas pump. The cost savings are even more significant in states with lower electricity prices or if you invest in renewable energy at home (e.g., solar).

**• Excellent performance.** Compared to EVs, gas-powered vehicles don‘t accelerate as quickly. EVs can reach their max speeds in just a few seconds because their motors can get full torque thanks to much simpler engines. They rely on fewer parts than gas-powered vehicles, which means easier maintenance. Many EV models also offer smoother handling, making for a comfortable ride.

### **Cons**

**• Expense**. At present, most EVs aren’t very affordable for the average consumer. If you’re not ready to shell out a large chunk of cash ([$56,437 on average](https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/eight-straight-new-vehicle-prices-mark-another-record-high-in-november-2021-according-to-kelley-blue-book-301442015.html#:~:text=%24-,56%2C437,-%2455%2C625)), you might want to wait about [five years](https://about.bnef.com/blog/the-ev-price-gap-narrows/) for price parity between gas-powered cars and EVs.

**• Charging isn’t always convenient**. Charging stations aren’t yet as common as gas stations. You often have to plan charging stops ahead of time (and even have a Plan B if a charging station isn’t functional). Fully charging your vehicle can also take a while—[between 30 minutes and 12 hours](https://pod-point.com/guides/driver/how-long-to-charge-an-electric-car) depending on the car’s battery and the charging station’s speed. There are about [113,600](https://www.statista.com/statistics/416750/number-of-electric-vehicle-charging-stations-outlets-united-states/) charging stations in the U.S., with nearly a third located in California. There’s good news though, the number of stations will likely skyrocket thanks to the Biden Administration’s dedication of [$5 billion](https://www.theverge.com/2022/2/10/22926969/electric-vehicle-ev-charging-network-biden-plan) to EV charging stations across the country via the bipartisan infrastructure law.

**• Battery manufacturing processes still have an environmental impact**. While much better for the environment than conventional vehicles, EVs contain parts that involve some unsustainable practices. The components of an EV’s lithium-ion batteries have to be mined, and electric car batteries aren’t easily recycled, which adds to a growing worldwide e-waste problem. 

## **How much better is an EV for the environment?**

No vehicle is going to  _help_ the environment—they all produce waste and require components that, in one way or another, are responsible for CO2 emissions. But if your situation allows you to invest in an electric car over a gas-powered one, there’s certainly a right answer.  


Again, electric cars are approximately 50% better for the environment than gas-powered cars because they[ produce fewer total emissions](https://www.sustain.life/blog/calculate-carbon-emissions-electricity). According to [ICCT](https://www.forbes.com/wheels/news/electric-cars-cleaner-than-gas-cars), “Results show that even for cars registered today, battery-electric vehicles have by far the lowest lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions.”

![Photo illustration of vintage gas station with hand charging an EV](https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/62733f1361e2ad64f8790984/6273e9b1fdadb4192ad40354_622a7243c904c34b12947ebd_sustain.life-electric-vehicle-charging.jpeg)

## **Deciding to invest in an EV**

There are [a lot of factors](https://www.sustain.life/blog/electric-vehicle-fleet-management) that should go into your decision to buy an EV. Income, convenience, and driving habits are a few. But remember, the farther away your home is from a charging station, the less practical it is to invest in an EV. However, if a greener commute is a top concern and you’re a two-car household, having an EV is great for shorter trips around town and allows you to reserve your gas-powered vehicle for longer road trips.  


If sustainability, your carbon footprint, and clean transportation are key factors and you’re ready to invest in an EV, then it’s a great step toward a more [carbon neutral](https://www.sustain.life/blog/carbon-neutral) lifestyle.

‍  


If you found this guide helpful and are interested in learning more about EVs, check out [Lemonade’s](https://www.lemonade.com/) infographic.

[![How Electric Vehicles Work](https://lemonadecarlibrary.kinsta.cloud/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/how-do-electric-cars-work-trends-ev-industry.png)](https://www.lemonade.com/car/explained/how-do-electric-cars-work/)

Editorial statement  


At Sustain.Life, our goal is to provide the most up-to-date, objective, and research-based information to help readers make informed decisions. Written by practitioners and experts, articles are grounded in research and experience-based practices. All information has been fact-checked and reviewed by our team of sustainability professionals to ensure content is accurate and aligns with current industry standards. Articles contain trusted third-party sources that are either directly linked to the text or listed at the bottom to take readers directly to the source.

Author

[Guest post: Lemonade](/blog-author/lemonade)

Lemonade is digital insurance built on social impact. 

Reviewer

[Alyssa Rade](/blog-author/alyssa-rade)

Alyssa Rade is the chief sustainability officer at Sustain.Life. She has over ten years of corporate sustainability experience and guides Sustain.Life’s platform features.

Tags

[Carbon Footprint](/blog-tags/carbon-footprint)

[Sustainability](/blog-tags/sustainability)

Share to

[](http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&url=&title=&summary=&source= "Share on LinkedIn")

[](https://www.linkedin.com/company/70963278)

[](https://twitter.com/intent/tweet? "Tweet")

[](https://twitter.com/sustaindotlife)

[ ](https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=&t= "Share on Facebook")

[](https://www.instagram.com/sustain.life)

The takeaway

• Gasoline-powered vehicles are responsible for 41% of all global transportation CO2 emissions.

• It will be about five years before there’s price parity between gas-powered cars and EVs.

• Electric cars are approximately 50% better for the environment than gas-powered cars because they produce fewer total emissions.

Want to improve your sustainability program?

[Request a demo](/demo)

Related posts

Article

[Why—and how—private equity firms should prioritize portfolio decarbonization](/blog/private-equity-portfolio-decarbonization)

Article

[NEWS: Sustain.Life partners with GRF CPAs & Advisors to offer sustainability software ](/blog/news-sustain-life-partners-grf-cpas-advisors-offer-sustainability-software)

Article

[Sustain.Life’s 2023 corporate emissions profile](/blog/sustain-life-2023-corporate-emissions-profile)

Article

[Exploring the ESG Data Convergence Initiative (EDCI)](/blog/exploring-the-esg-data-convergence-initiative-edci)

2023 Emissions

585.79

MT CO2e

[View the full emissions profile ↗](https://www.sustain.life/blog/sustain-life-2023-corporate-emissions-profile)

PRODUCT

[Measure](/measure)[Manage](/manage)[Report](/report)Supply chainPartnerships[Sign in](https://app.sustain.life/?_gl=1*q5i2pf*_ga*MTU1OTgxOTg0OC4xNjMzNzAyNzY1*_ga_4HH0ERCKY0*MTY1MTUwMjQ3OS4zMy4wLjE2NTE1MDI0NzkuNjA.&_ga=2.186069289.1438148479.1651502480-1559819848.1633702765#/signIn)

Use cases and features

[Sustainability and ESG](/sustainability-esg-teams)[Emissions targets](/features/emissions-targets)[Purchased goods & services](/features/purchased-goods-services)[Data quality](/features/data-quality)[Auditing and verification](/features/auditing-verification-third-party-assurance)[Consultants](/sustainability-consultants)[Supply chain](/supply-chain)[Finance and accounting](/finance-accounting)[Events and experiences](/events-experiences)[Partnerships](/partnerships)[Private equity and VC firms](/private-equity-and-vc-firms)[Developers ↗](https://developer.sustain.life)

Company

[Get a demo](/demo)[About us](/about-us)[Blog](/blog)[Careers ↗](https://www.workiva.com/careers)[Contact us](/contact-us)[Privacy policy](/privacy-policy)[Terms of service](/terms-of-service)[4Sided ↗](https://www.4sided.com/)

Social

[LinkedIn ↗](https://www.linkedin.com/company/sustainlife/)[YouTube ↗](https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCJnW7-im7kCJSBNzpaCOssw)[Community ↗](https://community.sustain.life/)

Stay connected

Your email address

Welcome!  
We’re excited to help you on your journey.

Oops! Something went wrong. Try again.

![Certified B Corporation Certification Mark](https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/6266b5e20215f61058171191/63ea9e3f1b7ced34ffbd49a4_B-Corp-Logo-White-RGB.svg)[![](https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/6266b5e20215f61058171191/65846bbfada659711ad5aba2_CDP_ASP_2023_RED.svg)](https://www.cdp.net/en/partners/sustainlife)![GRI Software and Tools Partner 2024](https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/6266b5e20215f61058171191/65cbbb2a5b384ad653315069_gri_2024.svg)![](https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/6266b5e20215f61058171191/63c866cd648e7f661d5a747e_A-LIGN-SOC%20Badge.png)

© Copyright 2024 Sustain.Life All rights reserved.


url: https://afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/electric-emissions
title: Alternative Fuels Data Center: Emissions from Electric Vehicles
scrape_date: 2025-02-27T18:06:12.049322
content_type: markdown
hash: 846f96f5bd144b4feb9845f0afba2b9a07d2ad59da33808c4420ac4adb1064d4
content:
Skip to Content

![](/vite/assets/eere_header_logo-SkLjAvjd.gif)

[EERE Home](http://www.eere.energy.gov/) | [Programs & Offices](https://www.energy.gov/eere/office-energy-efficiency-renewable-energy) | [Consumer Information](https://www.energy.gov/energysaver/energy-saver)

Search the AFDC Search

[Alternative Fuels Data Center](/)

  * [Fuels & Vehicles](/fuels)

    * **[Biodiesel](/fuels/biodiesel.html)** | [Diesel Vehicles](/vehicles/diesel.html)
    * **[Electricity](/fuels/electricity.html)** | [Electric Vehicles](/vehicles/electric.html)
    * **[Ethanol](/fuels/ethanol.html)** | [Flex Fuel Vehicles](/vehicles/flexible_fuel.html)
    * **[Hydrogen](/fuels/hydrogen.html)** | [Fuel Cell Vehicles](/vehicles/fuel_cell.html)
    * **[Natural Gas](/fuels/natural_gas.html)** | [Natural Gas Vehicles](/vehicles/natural_gas.html)
    * **[Propane](/fuels/propane.html)** | [Propane Vehicles](/vehicles/propane.html)
    * **[Renewable Diesel](/fuels/renewable_diesel.html)**
    * **[Sustainable Aviation Fuel](/fuels/sustainable_aviation_fuel.html)**
    * **[Emerging Fuels](/fuels/emerging.html)**
    * **[Fuel Prices](/fuels/prices.html)**

    * [ __Alternative Fuel and Advanced Technology Vehicles](/vehicles/search/download.pdf)
    * [ __Vehicle Cost Calculator](/calc/)

  * [Conserve Fuel](/conserve)

    * [Idle Reduction](/conserve/idle-reduction-basics)
    * [Parts & Equipment](/conserve/equipment)
    * [Driving Behavior](/conserve/driving-behavior)
    * [Fleet Rightsizing](/conserve/rightsizing)
    * [System Efficiency](/conserve/system-efficiency)

    * [ __Idle Reduction Savings Worksheet](http://www.anl.gov/energy-systems/downloads/vehicle-idle-reduction-savings-worksheet)

  * [Locate Stations](/stations)

    * [Search by Location](/stations/#/find/nearest)
    * [Map a Route](/stations/#/find/route)

    * [ __Station Data by State](/stations/states)
    * [ __Download Station Data](/data_download)

  * [Laws & Incentives](/laws)

    * [Search All](/laws/search)
    * [Federal](/laws/fed_summary)
    * [State](/laws/state)
    * [Key Legislation](/laws/key_legislation)
    * [Utility Incentives](/laws/utility-incentives)

    * [ __Project Assistance & Funding Opportunities ](/project_assistance.html)
    * [ __Examples of Local Laws & Incentives ](/laws/local_examples)

  * More...

    * [Maps & Data](/data)
    * [Case Studies](/case)
    * [Publications](/publications)
    * [Tools](/tools)
    * [About](/about.html)
    * [Home](/)




  * [Maps & Data](/data)
  * [Case Studies](/case)
  * [Publications](/publications)
  * [Tools](/tools)
  * [About](/about)
  * [Home](/)



##### Print Preview

__  
Print

__  
Close

### U.S. Department of Energy - Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

#### Alternative Fuels Data Center

[EERE](http://www.eere.energy.gov/) » [AFDC](/) » [Fuels & Vehicles](/fuels) » [Electricity](/fuels/electricity)

  * __Printable Version



__ __ More in this section... 

  * [Electricity Basics](/fuels/electricity-basics)
  * [Benefits & Considerations](/fuels/electricity-benefits)
  * [Stations](/fuels/electricity-stations)
  * [Vehicles](/vehicles/electric)
    * [Availability](/vehicles/electric-availability)
    * [Conversions](/vehicles/electric-conversions)
    * [Emissions](/vehicles/electric-emissions)
    * [Batteries](/vehicles/electric-batteries)
    * [Maintenance & Safety](/vehicles/electric-maintenance)
    * [School Bus Education](/vehicles/electric-school-buses)
    * [For Fleets](/vehicles/electric-fleets)
    * [For Consumers](/vehicles/electric-consumers)
  * [Laws & Incentives](/fuels/laws/ELEC)



# Emissions from Electric Vehicles

All-electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) typically produce lower tailpipe emissions than conventional vehicles do, and zero tailpipe emissions when running only on electricity. Tailpipe emissions are only one factor in considering a vehicle's life cycle emissions; gasoline and electricity [fuel pathways](/glossary#FuelPathway) also have upstream emissions to consider, which include extracting, refining, producing, and transporting the fuel. Estimating cradle-to-grave emissions must account for both fuel-cycle emissions (also known as "well to wheels") and vehicle-cycle emissions (material and vehicle production as well as end of life). The combined emissions from vehicle and fuel production through vehicle decommissioning (i.e., recycling or scrapping) are referred to as life cycle or cradle-to-grave emissions.

## Electricity Sources and Fuel-Cycle Emissions

All-electric vehicles and PHEVs running only on electricity have zero tailpipe emissions, but electricity production, such as power plants, may generate emissions. In geographic areas that use relatively low-polluting energy sources for electricity generation, all-electric vehicles and PHEVs typically have an especially large life cycle emissions advantage over similar conventional vehicles running on gasoline or diesel. In areas with higher-emissions electricity, all-electric vehicles and PHEVs may not demonstrate as strong a life cycle emissions benefit.

## Direct, Well-to-Wheel, and Cradle-to-Grave Emissions

Vehicle emissions contribute to smog, haze, and health problems, and they include greenhouse gases (GHGs), such as carbon dioxide and methane. Emissions can be evaluated on a tailpipe basis, a well-to-wheel basis, and a cradle-to-grave basis.

Conventional vehicles with an internal combustion engine (ICE) produce direct emissions through the tailpipe, as well as through evaporation from the vehicle's fuel system and during the fueling process. Conversely, all-electric vehicles produce zero direct emissions. PHEVs produce zero direct emissions when they are in all-electric mode, but they can produce evaporative emissions. When using the ICE, PHEVs produce tailpipe emissions. However, their direct emissions are typically lower than those of comparable conventional vehicles.

Well-to-wheel emissions include all emissions related to fuel production, processing, distribution, and use. In the case of gasoline, emissions are produced while extracting petroleum from the earth, refining it, distributing the fuel to stations, and burning it in vehicles. In the case of electricity, most electric power plants produce emissions, and there are additional emissions associated with the extraction, processing, and distribution of the primary energy sources they use for electricity production.

Cradle-to-grave emissions include all emissions considered on a well-to-wheel basis as well as vehicle-cycle emissions associated with vehicle and battery manufacturing, [recycling](/vehicles/electric-batteries#recyclability), and disposal.

## Related Reports

Learn more about electric vehicle emissions in two reports:

  * [Cradle-to-Grave Lifecycle Analysis of U.S. Light-Duty Vehicle-Fuel Pathways: A Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Economic Assessment of Current (2020) and Future (2030-2035) Technologies](https://greet.anl.gov/publication-c2g_lca_us_ldv)
  * [Emissions Associated with Electric Vehicle Charging: Impact of Electricity Generation Mix, Charging Infrastructure Availability, and Vehicle Type](https://afdc.energy.gov/files/u/publication/ev_emissions_impact.pdf)



##### [Fuels & Vehicles](/fuels/)

  * [Biodiesel](/fuels/biodiesel)
  * [Electricity](/fuels/electricity)
  * [Ethanol](/fuels/ethanol)
  * [Hydrogen](/fuels/hydrogen)
  * [Natural Gas](/fuels/natural-gas)
  * [Propane](/fuels/propane)
  * [Renewable Diesel](/fuels/renewable-diesel)
  * [Sustainable Aviation Fuel](/fuels/sustainable-aviation-fuel)
  * [Emerging Fuels](/fuels/emerging)
  * [Fuel Prices](/fuels/prices.html)



##### [Conserve Fuel](/conserve/)

  * [Idle Reduction](/conserve/idle-reduction-basics)
  * [Parts & Equipment](/conserve/equipment)
  * [Driving Behavior](/conserve/driving-behavior)
  * [Fleet Rightsizing](/conserve/rightsizing)
  * [System Efficiency](/conserve/system-efficiency)



##### [Locate Stations](/stations)

  * [Search by Location](/stations/#/find/nearest)
  * [Map a Route](/stations/#/find/route)



##### [Laws & Incentives](/laws)

  * [Search](/laws/search)
  * [Federal](/laws/fed_summary)
  * [State](/laws/state)
  * [Key Legislation](/laws/key_legislation)
  * [Utility Incentives](/laws/utility-incentives)



##### [Data & Tools](/tools)

  * [Widgets](/widgets/)
  * [Data Downloads](/data_download/)
  * [APIs](https://developer.nrel.gov/docs/transportation)



##### [About](/about.html)

  * [Newsletters](https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/vehicle-technologies-office-newsletters)


  * [Project Assistance](/project-assistance)
  * [Contacts](/contacts)



[![TRS](/vite/assets/trs-DCCuckIt.png)](mailto:technicalresponse@icf.com) **Need project assistance?**   
Email the [Technical Response Service](mailto:technicalresponse@icf.com) or call [800-254-6735](tel:800-254-6735)

  
  
The AFDC is a resource of the U.S. Department of Energy's [Vehicle Technologies Office](https://energy.gov/eere/vehicles/technology-integration).   
  
[Contacts](/contacts.html) | [Web Site Policies](https://energy.gov/about-us/web-policies) | [U.S. Department of Energy](https://energy.gov) | [USA.gov](https://www.usa.gov)

×

## 


url: http://arxiv.org/abs/1806.06947v1
scrape_date: 2025-02-28T08:26:27.876945
content_type: markdown
hash: 9500a7fc865c7bb240e62f319dd5c0420720490abcda38ceb8c5447b25e6a0c1
title:
[1806.06947v1] Forecasting the value of battery electric vehicles compared to internal combustion engine vehicles: the influence of driving range and battery technology

content:
Skip to main content

[![Cornell University](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/cu/cornell-reduced-white-SMALL.svg)](https://www.cornell.edu/)

We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, [member institutions](https://info.arxiv.org/about/ourmembers.html), and all contributors. [Donate](https://info.arxiv.org/about/donate.html)

[](/IgnoreMe)

[![arxiv logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/arxiv-logo-one-color-white.svg)](/) > [physics](/list/physics/recent) > arXiv:1806.06947v1 

[Help](https://info.arxiv.org/help) | [Advanced Search](https://arxiv.org/search/advanced)

All fields Title Author Abstract Comments Journal reference ACM classification MSC classification Report number arXiv identifier DOI ORCID arXiv author ID Help pages Full text

Search

[![arXiv logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/arxiv-logomark-small-white.svg)](https://arxiv.org/)

[ ![Cornell University Logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/cu/cornell-reduced-white-SMALL.svg) ](https://www.cornell.edu/)

open search

GO

open navigation menu

## quick links

  * [Login](https://arxiv.org/login)
  * [Help Pages](https://info.arxiv.org/help)
  * [About](https://info.arxiv.org/about)



# Physics > Physics and Society

**arXiv:1806.06947v1** (physics) 

[Submitted on 31 May 2018]

# Title:Forecasting the value of battery electric vehicles compared to internal combustion engine vehicles: the influence of driving range and battery technology

Authors:[JongRoul Woo](https://arxiv.org/search/physics?searchtype=author&query=Woo,+J), [Christopher L. Magee](https://arxiv.org/search/physics?searchtype=author&query=Magee,+C+L)

View a PDF of the paper titled Forecasting the value of battery electric vehicles compared to internal combustion engine vehicles: the influence of driving range and battery technology, by JongRoul Woo and 1 other authors

[View PDF](/pdf/1806.06947v1)

> Abstract:Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are now clearly a promising candidate in addressing the environmental problems associated with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). However, BEVs, unlike ICEVs, are still not widely accepted in the automobile market but continuing technological change could overcome this barrier. The aim of this study is to assess and forecast whether and when design changes and technological improvements related to major challenges in driving range and battery cost will make the user value of BEVs greater than the user value of ICEVs. Specifically, we estimate the relative user value of BEVs and ICEVs resulting after design modifications to achieve different driving ranges by considering the engineering trade-offs based on a vehicle simulation. Then, we analyze when the relative user value of BEVs is expected to exceed ICEVs as the energy density and cost of batteries improve because of ongoing technological change. Our analysis demonstrates that the relative value of BEVs is lower than that of ICEVs because BEVs have high battery cost and high cost of time spent recharging despite high torque, high fuel efficiency, and low fuel cost. Moreover, we found the relative value differences between BEVs and ICEVs are found to be less in high performance large cars than in low performance compact cars because BEVs can achieve high acceleration performance more easily than ICEVs. In addition, this study predicts that in approximately 2050, high performance large BEVs could have higher relative value than high performance large ICEVs because of technological improvements in batteries; however low performance compact BEVs are still very likely to have significantly lower user value than comparable ICEVs until well beyond 2050. 

Subjects: |  Physics and Society (physics.soc-ph); Computers and Society (cs.CY); General Economics (econ.GN)  
---|---  
Cite as: | [arXiv:1806.06947](https://arxiv.org/abs/1806.06947) [physics.soc-ph]  
  | (or  [arXiv:1806.06947v1](https://arxiv.org/abs/1806.06947v1) [physics.soc-ph] for this version)   
  |  <https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1806.06947> Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite  
  
## Submission history

From: JongRoul Woo [[view email](/show-email/cd4b6826/1806.06947)]   
**[v1]** Thu, 31 May 2018 04:41:52 UTC (1,472 KB)  


Full-text links:

## Access Paper:

View a PDF of the paper titled Forecasting the value of battery electric vehicles compared to internal combustion engine vehicles: the influence of driving range and battery technology, by JongRoul Woo and 1 other authors

  * [View PDF](/pdf/1806.06947v1)
  * [Other Formats](/format/1806.06947v1)



[view license](http://arxiv.org/licenses/nonexclusive-distrib/1.0/ "Rights to this article")

Current browse context: 

physics.soc-ph

[< prev](/prevnext?id=1806.06947&function=prev&context=physics.soc-ph "previous in physics.soc-ph \(accesskey p\)")   |   [next >](/prevnext?id=1806.06947&function=next&context=physics.soc-ph "next in physics.soc-ph \(accesskey n\)")   


[new](/list/physics.soc-ph/new) |  [recent](/list/physics.soc-ph/recent) | [2018-06](/list/physics.soc-ph/2018-06)

Change to browse by: 

[cs](/abs/1806.06947?context=cs)  
[cs.CY](/abs/1806.06947?context=cs.CY)  
[physics](/abs/1806.06947?context=physics)  
[q-fin](/abs/1806.06947?context=q-fin)  
[q-fin.EC](/abs/1806.06947?context=q-fin.EC)  


### References & Citations

  * [NASA ADS](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/arXiv:1806.06947)
  * [Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?arxiv_id=1806.06947)
  * [Semantic Scholar](https://api.semanticscholar.org/arXiv:1806.06947)



[a](/static/browse/0.3.4/css/cite.css) export BibTeX citation Loading...

## BibTeX formatted citation

×

loading...

Data provided by: 

### Bookmark

[ ![BibSonomy logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/social/bibsonomy.png) ](http://www.bibsonomy.org/BibtexHandler?requTask=upload&url=https://arxiv.org/abs/1806.06947&description=Forecasting the value of battery electric vehicles compared to internal combustion engine vehicles: the influence of driving range and battery technology "Bookmark on BibSonomy") [ ![Reddit logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/social/reddit.png) ](https://reddit.com/submit?url=https://arxiv.org/abs/1806.06947&title=Forecasting the value of battery electric vehicles compared to internal combustion engine vehicles: the influence of driving range and battery technology "Bookmark on Reddit")

Bibliographic Tools

# Bibliographic and Citation Tools

Bibliographic Explorer Toggle

Bibliographic Explorer _([What is the Explorer?](https://info.arxiv.org/labs/showcase.html#arxiv-bibliographic-explorer))_

Connected Papers Toggle

Connected Papers _([What is Connected Papers?](https://www.connectedpapers.com/about))_

Litmaps Toggle

Litmaps _([What is Litmaps?](https://www.litmaps.co/))_

scite.ai Toggle

scite Smart Citations _([What are Smart Citations?](https://www.scite.ai/))_

Code, Data, Media

# Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article

alphaXiv Toggle

alphaXiv _([What is alphaXiv?](https://alphaxiv.org/))_

Links to Code Toggle

CatalyzeX Code Finder for Papers _([What is CatalyzeX?](https://www.catalyzex.com))_

DagsHub Toggle

DagsHub _([What is DagsHub?](https://dagshub.com/))_

GotitPub Toggle

Gotit.pub _([What is GotitPub?](http://gotit.pub/faq))_

Huggingface Toggle

Hugging Face _([What is Huggingface?](https://huggingface.co/huggingface))_

Links to Code Toggle

Papers with Code _([What is Papers with Code?](https://paperswithcode.com/))_

ScienceCast Toggle

ScienceCast _([What is ScienceCast?](https://sciencecast.org/welcome))_

Demos

# Demos

Replicate Toggle

Replicate _([What is Replicate?](https://replicate.com/docs/arxiv/about))_

Spaces Toggle

Hugging Face Spaces _([What is Spaces?](https://huggingface.co/docs/hub/spaces))_

Spaces Toggle

TXYZ.AI _([What is TXYZ.AI?](https://txyz.ai))_

Related Papers

# Recommenders and Search Tools

Link to Influence Flower

Influence Flower _([What are Influence Flowers?](https://influencemap.cmlab.dev/))_

Core recommender toggle

CORE Recommender _([What is CORE?](https://core.ac.uk/services/recommender))_

  * Author
  * Venue
  * Institution
  * Topic



About arXivLabs 

# arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators

arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website.

Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them.

Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? [**Learn more about arXivLabs**](https://info.arxiv.org/labs/index.html).

[Which authors of this paper are endorsers?](/auth/show-endorsers/1806.06947) | [Disable MathJax](javascript:setMathjaxCookie\(\)) ([What is MathJax?](https://info.arxiv.org/help/mathjax.html)) 

  * [About](https://info.arxiv.org/about)
  * [Help](https://info.arxiv.org/help)



  * contact arXivClick here to contact arXiv [ Contact](https://info.arxiv.org/help/contact.html)
  * subscribe to arXiv mailingsClick here to subscribe [ Subscribe](https://info.arxiv.org/help/subscribe)



  * [Copyright](https://info.arxiv.org/help/license/index.html)
  * [Privacy Policy](https://info.arxiv.org/help/policies/privacy_policy.html)



  * [Web Accessibility Assistance](https://info.arxiv.org/help/web_accessibility.html)
  * [arXiv Operational Status ](https://status.arxiv.org)  
Get status notifications via [email](https://subscribe.sorryapp.com/24846f03/email/new) or [slack](https://subscribe.sorryapp.com/24846f03/slack/new)


url: http://arxiv.org/abs/2410.17282v1
scrape_date: 2025-02-28T08:26:27.877239
content_type: markdown
hash: af251dce7bb2e6c9bb8fdf6f92ef2affbe64808d985460f9a606611b31ed9de1
title:
[2410.17282v1] Drivers of Electric Vehicle Adoption in Nigeria: An Extended UTAUT Framework Approach

content:
Skip to main content

[![Cornell University](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/cu/cornell-reduced-white-SMALL.svg)](https://www.cornell.edu/)

We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, [member institutions](https://info.arxiv.org/about/ourmembers.html), and all contributors. [Donate](https://info.arxiv.org/about/donate.html)

[](/IgnoreMe)

[![arxiv logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/arxiv-logo-one-color-white.svg)](/) > [physics](/list/physics/recent) > arXiv:2410.17282v1 

[Help](https://info.arxiv.org/help) | [Advanced Search](https://arxiv.org/search/advanced)

All fields Title Author Abstract Comments Journal reference ACM classification MSC classification Report number arXiv identifier DOI ORCID arXiv author ID Help pages Full text

Search

[![arXiv logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/arxiv-logomark-small-white.svg)](https://arxiv.org/)

[ ![Cornell University Logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/cu/cornell-reduced-white-SMALL.svg) ](https://www.cornell.edu/)

open search

GO

open navigation menu

## quick links

  * [Login](https://arxiv.org/login)
  * [Help Pages](https://info.arxiv.org/help)
  * [About](https://info.arxiv.org/about)



# Physics > Physics and Society

**arXiv:2410.17282v1** (physics) 

[Submitted on 14 Oct 2024]

# Title:Drivers of Electric Vehicle Adoption in Nigeria: An Extended UTAUT Framework Approach

Authors:[Qasim Ajao](https://arxiv.org/search/physics?searchtype=author&query=Ajao,+Q), [Lanre Sadeeq](https://arxiv.org/search/physics?searchtype=author&query=Sadeeq,+L), [Oluwatobi Oluwaponmile Sodiq](https://arxiv.org/search/physics?searchtype=author&query=Sodiq,+O+O)

View a PDF of the paper titled Drivers of Electric Vehicle Adoption in Nigeria: An Extended UTAUT Framework Approach, by Qasim Ajao and 2 other authors

[View PDF](/pdf/2410.17282v1)

> Abstract:Electric vehicles (EVs) represent a significant advancement in automotive technology, utilizing electricity as a power source instead of traditional fossil fuels, while incorporating sophisticated navigation and autopilot systems. These vehicles align with multiple Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by offering a more environmentally sustainable alternative to internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Despite their potential, the adoption of EVs in developing nations such as Nigeria remains constrained. This study expands the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) framework by incorporating key enablers, including poor infrastructure, affordability issues, and government support, within the broader category of facilitating conditions. Additionally, it examines factors such as trust, performance expectations, social influences, and network externalities to identify the primary determinants influencing Nigerian consumers' propensity to adopt EVs. Results show that the percentage increase of H6 (facilitating conditions - behavioral intentions) compared to H5 (network externalities - behavioral intentions) is approximately 32.35%, indicating that traditional drivers significantly influence individuals' willingness to purchase EVs and are particularly strong factors in adoption decisions. The paper concludes with a discussion of these findings and proposes strategies for future research to further explore the barriers and drivers of EV adoption in Nigeria. 

Subjects: |  Physics and Society (physics.soc-ph); General Economics (econ.GN)  
---|---  
Cite as: | [arXiv:2410.17282](https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.17282) [physics.soc-ph]  
  | (or  [arXiv:2410.17282v1](https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.17282v1) [physics.soc-ph] for this version)   
  |  <https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2410.17282> Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite  
Journal reference: | African Journal of Environmental Sciences and Renewable Energy 2024  
Related DOI:  | <https://doi.org/10.62154/ajesre.2024.016.010326> Focus to learn more DOI(s) linking to related resources   
  
## Submission history

From: Qasim Ajao [[view email](/show-email/00b14253/2410.17282)]   
**[v1]** Mon, 14 Oct 2024 18:18:29 UTC (869 KB)  


Full-text links:

## Access Paper:

View a PDF of the paper titled Drivers of Electric Vehicle Adoption in Nigeria: An Extended UTAUT Framework Approach, by Qasim Ajao and 2 other authors

  * [View PDF](/pdf/2410.17282v1)
  * [Other Formats](/format/2410.17282v1)



[ ![license icon](https://arxiv.org/icons/licenses/by-4.0.png) view license ](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ "Rights to this article")

Current browse context: 

physics.soc-ph

[< prev](/prevnext?id=2410.17282&function=prev&context=physics.soc-ph "previous in physics.soc-ph \(accesskey p\)")   |   [next >](/prevnext?id=2410.17282&function=next&context=physics.soc-ph "next in physics.soc-ph \(accesskey n\)")   


[new](/list/physics.soc-ph/new) |  [recent](/list/physics.soc-ph/recent) | [2024-10](/list/physics.soc-ph/2024-10)

Change to browse by: 

[econ](/abs/2410.17282?context=econ)  
[econ.GN](/abs/2410.17282?context=econ.GN)  
[physics](/abs/2410.17282?context=physics)  
[q-fin](/abs/2410.17282?context=q-fin)  
[q-fin.EC](/abs/2410.17282?context=q-fin.EC)  


### References & Citations

  * [NASA ADS](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/arXiv:2410.17282)
  * [Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?arxiv_id=2410.17282)
  * [Semantic Scholar](https://api.semanticscholar.org/arXiv:2410.17282)



[a](/static/browse/0.3.4/css/cite.css) export BibTeX citation Loading...

## BibTeX formatted citation

×

loading...

Data provided by: 

### Bookmark

[ ![BibSonomy logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/social/bibsonomy.png) ](http://www.bibsonomy.org/BibtexHandler?requTask=upload&url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.17282&description=Drivers of Electric Vehicle Adoption in Nigeria: An Extended UTAUT Framework Approach "Bookmark on BibSonomy") [ ![Reddit logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/social/reddit.png) ](https://reddit.com/submit?url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.17282&title=Drivers of Electric Vehicle Adoption in Nigeria: An Extended UTAUT Framework Approach "Bookmark on Reddit")

Bibliographic Tools

# Bibliographic and Citation Tools

Bibliographic Explorer Toggle

Bibliographic Explorer _([What is the Explorer?](https://info.arxiv.org/labs/showcase.html#arxiv-bibliographic-explorer))_

Connected Papers Toggle

Connected Papers _([What is Connected Papers?](https://www.connectedpapers.com/about))_

Litmaps Toggle

Litmaps _([What is Litmaps?](https://www.litmaps.co/))_

scite.ai Toggle

scite Smart Citations _([What are Smart Citations?](https://www.scite.ai/))_

Code, Data, Media

# Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article

alphaXiv Toggle

alphaXiv _([What is alphaXiv?](https://alphaxiv.org/))_

Links to Code Toggle

CatalyzeX Code Finder for Papers _([What is CatalyzeX?](https://www.catalyzex.com))_

DagsHub Toggle

DagsHub _([What is DagsHub?](https://dagshub.com/))_

GotitPub Toggle

Gotit.pub _([What is GotitPub?](http://gotit.pub/faq))_

Huggingface Toggle

Hugging Face _([What is Huggingface?](https://huggingface.co/huggingface))_

Links to Code Toggle

Papers with Code _([What is Papers with Code?](https://paperswithcode.com/))_

ScienceCast Toggle

ScienceCast _([What is ScienceCast?](https://sciencecast.org/welcome))_

Demos

# Demos

Replicate Toggle

Replicate _([What is Replicate?](https://replicate.com/docs/arxiv/about))_

Spaces Toggle

Hugging Face Spaces _([What is Spaces?](https://huggingface.co/docs/hub/spaces))_

Spaces Toggle

TXYZ.AI _([What is TXYZ.AI?](https://txyz.ai))_

Related Papers

# Recommenders and Search Tools

Link to Influence Flower

Influence Flower _([What are Influence Flowers?](https://influencemap.cmlab.dev/))_

Core recommender toggle

CORE Recommender _([What is CORE?](https://core.ac.uk/services/recommender))_

  * Author
  * Venue
  * Institution
  * Topic



About arXivLabs 

# arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators

arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website.

Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them.

Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? [**Learn more about arXivLabs**](https://info.arxiv.org/labs/index.html).

[Which authors of this paper are endorsers?](/auth/show-endorsers/2410.17282) | [Disable MathJax](javascript:setMathjaxCookie\(\)) ([What is MathJax?](https://info.arxiv.org/help/mathjax.html)) 

  * [About](https://info.arxiv.org/about)
  * [Help](https://info.arxiv.org/help)



  * contact arXivClick here to contact arXiv [ Contact](https://info.arxiv.org/help/contact.html)
  * subscribe to arXiv mailingsClick here to subscribe [ Subscribe](https://info.arxiv.org/help/subscribe)



  * [Copyright](https://info.arxiv.org/help/license/index.html)
  * [Privacy Policy](https://info.arxiv.org/help/policies/privacy_policy.html)



  * [Web Accessibility Assistance](https://info.arxiv.org/help/web_accessibility.html)
  * [arXiv Operational Status ](https://status.arxiv.org)  
Get status notifications via [email](https://subscribe.sorryapp.com/24846f03/email/new) or [slack](https://subscribe.sorryapp.com/24846f03/slack/new)



  *[Related DOI]: Digital Object Identifier


url: http://arxiv.org/abs/2312.03137v1
scrape_date: 2025-02-28T08:26:27.877273
content_type: markdown
hash: 9f6eb33e77011047e238b5f7ddefc0cbb776f3c670b5a46953956432b4c5e407
title:
[2312.03137v1] The Role of Net-Zero Energy Residential Buildings in Florida's Energy Transition: Economic Analysis and Technical Benefits

content:
Skip to main content

[![Cornell University](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/cu/cornell-reduced-white-SMALL.svg)](https://www.cornell.edu/)

We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, [member institutions](https://info.arxiv.org/about/ourmembers.html), and all contributors. [Donate](https://info.arxiv.org/about/donate.html)

[](/IgnoreMe)

[![arxiv logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/arxiv-logo-one-color-white.svg)](/) > [eess](/list/eess/recent) > arXiv:2312.03137v1 

[Help](https://info.arxiv.org/help) | [Advanced Search](https://arxiv.org/search/advanced)

All fields Title Author Abstract Comments Journal reference ACM classification MSC classification Report number arXiv identifier DOI ORCID arXiv author ID Help pages Full text

Search

[![arXiv logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/arxiv-logomark-small-white.svg)](https://arxiv.org/)

[ ![Cornell University Logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/cu/cornell-reduced-white-SMALL.svg) ](https://www.cornell.edu/)

open search

GO

open navigation menu

## quick links

  * [Login](https://arxiv.org/login)
  * [Help Pages](https://info.arxiv.org/help)
  * [About](https://info.arxiv.org/about)



# Electrical Engineering and Systems Science > Systems and Control

**arXiv:2312.03137v1** (eess) 

[Submitted on 5 Dec 2023]

# Title:The Role of Net-Zero Energy Residential Buildings in Florida's Energy Transition: Economic Analysis and Technical Benefits

Authors:[Hamed Haggi](https://arxiv.org/search/eess?searchtype=author&query=Haggi,+H), [James M. Fenton](https://arxiv.org/search/eess?searchtype=author&query=Fenton,+J+M)

View a PDF of the paper titled The Role of Net-Zero Energy Residential Buildings in Florida's Energy Transition: Economic Analysis and Technical Benefits, by Hamed Haggi and 1 other authors

[View PDF](/pdf/2312.03137v1) [HTML (experimental)](https://arxiv.org/html/2312.03137v1)

> Abstract:Net-zero emission policies, coupled with declining costs of renewables, battery storage, and electric vehicles, require both direct and indirect electrification (such as green hydrogen) of the energy infrastructure to address climate change impacts, improve resilience, and lower energy expenses. In this paper, a comprehensive techno-economic analysis was performed that integrated net-zero energy buildings within the context of Florida energy transition by the year 2050. The analysis compares the monthly cost savings of owning photovoltaic (PV) on the roof, battery storage, and Electric Vehicle (EV) to the cost of buying electricity from the grid for both existing and newly built Orlando homes. The impact of income tax credits (ITC) and energy efficiency improvements on monthly savings was taken into account. The levelized cost of electricity for residential PV and PV + battery systems was determined and extended to provide a cost equivalent to gasoline for an average EV. Rooftop solar fueling an EV for 10,000 miles saves \$100 per month over purchasing gasoline. Today, Florida residents can save on their monthly costs of electricity and gasoline if they have both PV on their roof and a battery system (sized for average daily residence load), and benefit from the federal ITC. Florida residents can cost-effectively transition to their own solar, battery storage, and electric vehicle to home systems. Allowing utility-scale solar to be used for on-site EV fast-charging and hydrogen production through electrolysis for fuel cell vehicles or blending with natural gas, minimizing the need for electricity transmission and distribution costs across the power grids. 

Subjects: |  Systems and Control (eess.SY)  
---|---  
Cite as: | [arXiv:2312.03137](https://arxiv.org/abs/2312.03137) [eess.SY]  
  | (or  [arXiv:2312.03137v1](https://arxiv.org/abs/2312.03137v1) [eess.SY] for this version)   
  |  <https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2312.03137> Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite  
  
## Submission history

From: Hamed Haggi [[view email](/show-email/d9fa34ed/2312.03137)]   
**[v1]** Tue, 5 Dec 2023 21:09:09 UTC (8,152 KB)  


Full-text links:

## Access Paper:

View a PDF of the paper titled The Role of Net-Zero Energy Residential Buildings in Florida's Energy Transition: Economic Analysis and Technical Benefits, by Hamed Haggi and 1 other authors

  * [View PDF](/pdf/2312.03137v1)
  * [HTML (experimental)](https://arxiv.org/html/2312.03137v1)
  * [TeX Source](/src/2312.03137v1)
  * [Other Formats](/format/2312.03137v1)



[ ![license icon](https://arxiv.org/icons/licenses/by-4.0.png) view license ](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ "Rights to this article")

Current browse context: 

eess.SY

[< prev](/prevnext?id=2312.03137&function=prev&context=eess.SY "previous in eess.SY \(accesskey p\)")   |   [next >](/prevnext?id=2312.03137&function=next&context=eess.SY "next in eess.SY \(accesskey n\)")   


[new](/list/eess.SY/new) |  [recent](/list/eess.SY/recent) | [2023-12](/list/eess.SY/2023-12)

Change to browse by: 

[cs](/abs/2312.03137?context=cs)  
[cs.SY](/abs/2312.03137?context=cs.SY)  
[eess](/abs/2312.03137?context=eess)  


### References & Citations

  * [NASA ADS](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/arXiv:2312.03137)
  * [Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?arxiv_id=2312.03137)
  * [Semantic Scholar](https://api.semanticscholar.org/arXiv:2312.03137)



[a](/static/browse/0.3.4/css/cite.css) export BibTeX citation Loading...

## BibTeX formatted citation

×

loading...

Data provided by: 

### Bookmark

[ ![BibSonomy logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/social/bibsonomy.png) ](http://www.bibsonomy.org/BibtexHandler?requTask=upload&url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2312.03137&description=The Role of Net-Zero Energy Residential Buildings in Florida's Energy Transition: Economic Analysis and Technical Benefits "Bookmark on BibSonomy") [ ![Reddit logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/social/reddit.png) ](https://reddit.com/submit?url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2312.03137&title=The Role of Net-Zero Energy Residential Buildings in Florida's Energy Transition: Economic Analysis and Technical Benefits "Bookmark on Reddit")

Bibliographic Tools

# Bibliographic and Citation Tools

Bibliographic Explorer Toggle

Bibliographic Explorer _([What is the Explorer?](https://info.arxiv.org/labs/showcase.html#arxiv-bibliographic-explorer))_

Connected Papers Toggle

Connected Papers _([What is Connected Papers?](https://www.connectedpapers.com/about))_

Litmaps Toggle

Litmaps _([What is Litmaps?](https://www.litmaps.co/))_

scite.ai Toggle

scite Smart Citations _([What are Smart Citations?](https://www.scite.ai/))_

Code, Data, Media

# Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article

alphaXiv Toggle

alphaXiv _([What is alphaXiv?](https://alphaxiv.org/))_

Links to Code Toggle

CatalyzeX Code Finder for Papers _([What is CatalyzeX?](https://www.catalyzex.com))_

DagsHub Toggle

DagsHub _([What is DagsHub?](https://dagshub.com/))_

GotitPub Toggle

Gotit.pub _([What is GotitPub?](http://gotit.pub/faq))_

Huggingface Toggle

Hugging Face _([What is Huggingface?](https://huggingface.co/huggingface))_

Links to Code Toggle

Papers with Code _([What is Papers with Code?](https://paperswithcode.com/))_

ScienceCast Toggle

ScienceCast _([What is ScienceCast?](https://sciencecast.org/welcome))_

Demos

# Demos

Replicate Toggle

Replicate _([What is Replicate?](https://replicate.com/docs/arxiv/about))_

Spaces Toggle

Hugging Face Spaces _([What is Spaces?](https://huggingface.co/docs/hub/spaces))_

Spaces Toggle

TXYZ.AI _([What is TXYZ.AI?](https://txyz.ai))_

Related Papers

# Recommenders and Search Tools

Link to Influence Flower

Influence Flower _([What are Influence Flowers?](https://influencemap.cmlab.dev/))_

Core recommender toggle

CORE Recommender _([What is CORE?](https://core.ac.uk/services/recommender))_

  * Author
  * Venue
  * Institution
  * Topic



About arXivLabs 

# arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators

arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website.

Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them.

Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? [**Learn more about arXivLabs**](https://info.arxiv.org/labs/index.html).

[Which authors of this paper are endorsers?](/auth/show-endorsers/2312.03137) | [Disable MathJax](javascript:setMathjaxCookie\(\)) ([What is MathJax?](https://info.arxiv.org/help/mathjax.html)) 

  * [About](https://info.arxiv.org/about)
  * [Help](https://info.arxiv.org/help)



  * contact arXivClick here to contact arXiv [ Contact](https://info.arxiv.org/help/contact.html)
  * subscribe to arXiv mailingsClick here to subscribe [ Subscribe](https://info.arxiv.org/help/subscribe)



  * [Copyright](https://info.arxiv.org/help/license/index.html)
  * [Privacy Policy](https://info.arxiv.org/help/policies/privacy_policy.html)



  * [Web Accessibility Assistance](https://info.arxiv.org/help/web_accessibility.html)
  * [arXiv Operational Status ](https://status.arxiv.org)  
Get status notifications via [email](https://subscribe.sorryapp.com/24846f03/email/new) or [slack](https://subscribe.sorryapp.com/24846f03/slack/new)


url: http://arxiv.org/abs/2112.12769v2
scrape_date: 2025-02-28T08:26:27.955910
content_type: markdown
hash: 31f0fe7c2abae8207be18b1f232116591cb463d8fe2c216031161546dab1cee8
title:
[2112.12769v2] Joint Routing of Conventional and Range-Extended Electric Vehicles in a Large Metropolitan Network

content:
Skip to main content

[![Cornell University](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/cu/cornell-reduced-white-SMALL.svg)](https://www.cornell.edu/)

We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, [member institutions](https://info.arxiv.org/about/ourmembers.html), and all contributors. [Donate](https://info.arxiv.org/about/donate.html)

[](/IgnoreMe)

[![arxiv logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/arxiv-logo-one-color-white.svg)](/) > [math](/list/math/recent) > arXiv:2112.12769v2 

[Help](https://info.arxiv.org/help) | [Advanced Search](https://arxiv.org/search/advanced)

All fields Title Author Abstract Comments Journal reference ACM classification MSC classification Report number arXiv identifier DOI ORCID arXiv author ID Help pages Full text

Search

[![arXiv logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/arxiv-logomark-small-white.svg)](https://arxiv.org/)

[ ![Cornell University Logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/cu/cornell-reduced-white-SMALL.svg) ](https://www.cornell.edu/)

open search

GO

open navigation menu

## quick links

  * [Login](https://arxiv.org/login)
  * [Help Pages](https://info.arxiv.org/help)
  * [About](https://info.arxiv.org/about)



# Mathematics > Optimization and Control

**arXiv:2112.12769v2** (math) 

[Submitted on 23 Dec 2021 ([v1](https://arxiv.org/abs/2112.12769v1)), last revised 4 Jan 2022 (this version, v2)]

# Title:Joint Routing of Conventional and Range-Extended Electric Vehicles in a Large Metropolitan Network

Authors:[Anirudh Subramanyam](https://arxiv.org/search/math?searchtype=author&query=Subramanyam,+A), [Taner Cokyasar](https://arxiv.org/search/math?searchtype=author&query=Cokyasar,+T), [Jeffrey Larson](https://arxiv.org/search/math?searchtype=author&query=Larson,+J), [Monique Stinson](https://arxiv.org/search/math?searchtype=author&query=Stinson,+M)

View a PDF of the paper titled Joint Routing of Conventional and Range-Extended Electric Vehicles in a Large Metropolitan Network, by Anirudh Subramanyam and Taner Cokyasar and Jeffrey Larson and Monique Stinson

[View PDF](/pdf/2112.12769v2)

> Abstract:Range-extended electric vehicles combine the higher efficiency and environmental benefits of battery-powered electric motors with the longer mileage and autonomy of conventional internal combustion engines. This combination is particularly advantageous for time-constrained delivery routing in dense urban areas, where battery recharging along routes can be too time-consuming to economically justify the use of all-electric vehicles. However, switching from electric to conventional fossil fuel modes also results in higher costs and emissions and lower efficiency. This paper analyzes this heterogeneous vehicle routing problem and describes two solution methods: an exact branch-price-and-cut algorithm and an iterated tabu search metaheuristic. From a methodological perspective, we find that the exact algorithm consistently obtains tight lower bounds that also serve to certify the metaheuristic solutions as near-optimal. From a policy standpoint, we examine a large-scale real-world case study concerning parcel deliveries in the Chicago metropolitan area and quantify various operational metrics including energy costs and vehicle miles traveled. We find that by deploying roughly 20% of range-extended vehicles with a modest all-electric range of 33 miles, parcel distributors can save energy costs by up to 17% while incurring less than 0.5% increase in vehicle miles traveled. Increasing the range to 60 miles further reduces costs by only 4%, which can alternatively be achieved by decreasing the average service time by 1 minute or increasing driver working time by 1 hour. Our study reveals several key areas of improvement on which vehicle manufacturers, distributors, and policy makers can focus their attention. 

Subjects: |  Optimization and Control (math.OC)  
---|---  
MSC classes: | 90B06  
Cite as: | [arXiv:2112.12769](https://arxiv.org/abs/2112.12769) [math.OC]  
  | (or  [arXiv:2112.12769v2](https://arxiv.org/abs/2112.12769v2) [math.OC] for this version)   
  |  <https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2112.12769> Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite  
Related DOI:  | <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2022.103830> Focus to learn more DOI(s) linking to related resources   
  
## Submission history

From: Anirudh Subramanyam [[view email](/show-email/2a10192c/2112.12769)]   
**[[v1]](/abs/2112.12769v1)** Thu, 23 Dec 2021 18:46:34 UTC (10,777 KB)  
**[v2]** Tue, 4 Jan 2022 22:46:05 UTC (10,777 KB)  


Full-text links:

## Access Paper:

View a PDF of the paper titled Joint Routing of Conventional and Range-Extended Electric Vehicles in a Large Metropolitan Network, by Anirudh Subramanyam and Taner Cokyasar and Jeffrey Larson and Monique Stinson

  * [View PDF](/pdf/2112.12769v2)
  * [TeX Source](/src/2112.12769v2)
  * [Other Formats](/format/2112.12769v2)



[ ![license icon](https://arxiv.org/icons/licenses/by-4.0.png) view license ](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ "Rights to this article")

Current browse context: 

math.OC

[< prev](/prevnext?id=2112.12769&function=prev&context=math.OC "previous in math.OC \(accesskey p\)")   |   [next >](/prevnext?id=2112.12769&function=next&context=math.OC "next in math.OC \(accesskey n\)")   


[new](/list/math.OC/new) |  [recent](/list/math.OC/recent) | [2021-12](/list/math.OC/2021-12)

Change to browse by: 

[math](/abs/2112.12769?context=math)  


### References & Citations

  * [NASA ADS](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/arXiv:2112.12769)
  * [Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?arxiv_id=2112.12769)
  * [Semantic Scholar](https://api.semanticscholar.org/arXiv:2112.12769)



[a](/static/browse/0.3.4/css/cite.css) export BibTeX citation Loading...

## BibTeX formatted citation

×

loading...

Data provided by: 

### Bookmark

[ ![BibSonomy logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/social/bibsonomy.png) ](http://www.bibsonomy.org/BibtexHandler?requTask=upload&url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2112.12769&description=Joint Routing of Conventional and Range-Extended Electric Vehicles in a Large Metropolitan Network "Bookmark on BibSonomy") [ ![Reddit logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/social/reddit.png) ](https://reddit.com/submit?url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2112.12769&title=Joint Routing of Conventional and Range-Extended Electric Vehicles in a Large Metropolitan Network "Bookmark on Reddit")

Bibliographic Tools

# Bibliographic and Citation Tools

Bibliographic Explorer Toggle

Bibliographic Explorer _([What is the Explorer?](https://info.arxiv.org/labs/showcase.html#arxiv-bibliographic-explorer))_

Connected Papers Toggle

Connected Papers _([What is Connected Papers?](https://www.connectedpapers.com/about))_

Litmaps Toggle

Litmaps _([What is Litmaps?](https://www.litmaps.co/))_

scite.ai Toggle

scite Smart Citations _([What are Smart Citations?](https://www.scite.ai/))_

Code, Data, Media

# Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article

alphaXiv Toggle

alphaXiv _([What is alphaXiv?](https://alphaxiv.org/))_

Links to Code Toggle

CatalyzeX Code Finder for Papers _([What is CatalyzeX?](https://www.catalyzex.com))_

DagsHub Toggle

DagsHub _([What is DagsHub?](https://dagshub.com/))_

GotitPub Toggle

Gotit.pub _([What is GotitPub?](http://gotit.pub/faq))_

Huggingface Toggle

Hugging Face _([What is Huggingface?](https://huggingface.co/huggingface))_

Links to Code Toggle

Papers with Code _([What is Papers with Code?](https://paperswithcode.com/))_

ScienceCast Toggle

ScienceCast _([What is ScienceCast?](https://sciencecast.org/welcome))_

Demos

# Demos

Replicate Toggle

Replicate _([What is Replicate?](https://replicate.com/docs/arxiv/about))_

Spaces Toggle

Hugging Face Spaces _([What is Spaces?](https://huggingface.co/docs/hub/spaces))_

Spaces Toggle

TXYZ.AI _([What is TXYZ.AI?](https://txyz.ai))_

Related Papers

# Recommenders and Search Tools

Link to Influence Flower

Influence Flower _([What are Influence Flowers?](https://influencemap.cmlab.dev/))_

Core recommender toggle

CORE Recommender _([What is CORE?](https://core.ac.uk/services/recommender))_

  * Author
  * Venue
  * Institution
  * Topic



About arXivLabs 

# arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators

arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website.

Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them.

Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? [**Learn more about arXivLabs**](https://info.arxiv.org/labs/index.html).

[Which authors of this paper are endorsers?](/auth/show-endorsers/2112.12769) | [Disable MathJax](javascript:setMathjaxCookie\(\)) ([What is MathJax?](https://info.arxiv.org/help/mathjax.html)) 

  * [About](https://info.arxiv.org/about)
  * [Help](https://info.arxiv.org/help)



  * contact arXivClick here to contact arXiv [ Contact](https://info.arxiv.org/help/contact.html)
  * subscribe to arXiv mailingsClick here to subscribe [ Subscribe](https://info.arxiv.org/help/subscribe)



  * [Copyright](https://info.arxiv.org/help/license/index.html)
  * [Privacy Policy](https://info.arxiv.org/help/policies/privacy_policy.html)



  * [Web Accessibility Assistance](https://info.arxiv.org/help/web_accessibility.html)
  * [arXiv Operational Status ](https://status.arxiv.org)  
Get status notifications via [email](https://subscribe.sorryapp.com/24846f03/email/new) or [slack](https://subscribe.sorryapp.com/24846f03/slack/new)



  *[MSC]: Mathematical Subject Classification
  *[Related DOI]: Digital Object Identifier


url: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/17/1/249
scrape_date: 2025-02-28T08:26:28.163492
content_type: markdown
hash: cfcdf4e1365819fa697cd160fb2670e883d4c3b56d8b942305123d965430d1d0
title:
Electric Vehicles&mdash;An Overview of Current Issues&mdash;Part 1&mdash;Environmental Impact, Source of Energy, Recycling, and Second Life of Battery

content:
__

Next Article in Journal  


[Design and Analysis of a Three-Phase Interleaved DC-DC Boost Converter with an Energy Storage System for a PV System](/1996-1073/17/1/250)

__

Previous Article in Journal  


[Numerical Simulation Study of Hydrogen Blending Combustion in Swirl Pulverized Coal Burner](/1996-1073/17/1/248)

Previous Article in Special Issue  


[Review on Battery State Estimation and Management Solutions for Next-Generation Connected Vehicles](/1996-1073/17/1/202)

## Journals

[Active Journals](/about/journals) [Find a Journal](/about/journalfinder) [Journal Proposal](/about/journals/proposal) [Proceedings Series](/about/proceedings)

## [Topics ](/topics)

## Information

[For Authors](/authors) [For Reviewers](/reviewers) [For Editors](/editors) [For Librarians](/librarians) [For Publishers](/publishing_services) [For Societies](/societies) [For Conference Organizers](/conference_organizers)

[Open Access Policy](/openaccess) [Institutional Open Access Program](/ioap) [Special Issues Guidelines](/special_issues_guidelines) [Editorial Process](/editorial_process) [Research and Publication Ethics](/ethics) [Article Processing Charges](/apc) [Awards](/awards) [Testimonials](/testimonials)

## [Author Services ](/authors/english)

## Initiatives

[Sciforum](https://sciforum.net) [MDPI Books](https://www.mdpi.com/books) [Preprints.org](https://www.preprints.org) [Scilit](https://www.scilit.com) [SciProfiles](https://sciprofiles.com) [Encyclopedia](https://encyclopedia.pub) [JAMS](https://jams.pub) [Proceedings Series](/about/proceedings)

## About

[Overview](/about) [Contact](/about/contact) [Careers](https://careers.mdpi.com) [News](/about/announcements) [Press](/about/press) [Blog](http://blog.mdpi.com/)

[Sign In / Sign Up](/user/login)

## Notice

You can make submissions to other journals [here](https://susy.mdpi.com/user/manuscripts/upload). 

_clear_

## Notice

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader. 

Continue Cancel

_clear_

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to <https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess>. 

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications. 

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers. 

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal. 

Original Submission Date Received: . 

You seem to have javascript disabled. Please note that many of the page functionalities won't work as expected without javascript enabled. 

[ ![](https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/mdpi-pub-logo-black-small1.svg?da3a8dcae975a41c?1740558760) ](/)

_clear_ [ _zoom_out_map_ ](/toggle_desktop_layout_cookie "Toggle desktop layout") _search_ _menu_

[ ![](https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/mdpi-pub-logo-black-small1.svg?da3a8dcae975a41c?1740558760) ](/)

  * [Journals](/about/journals)
    *       * [ Active Journals ](/about/journals)
      * [ Find a Journal ](/about/journalfinder)
      * [ Journal Proposal ](/about/journals/proposal)
      * [ Proceedings Series ](/about/proceedings)

  * [Topics](/topics)
  * [Information](/authors)
    *       * [For Authors](/authors)
      * [For Reviewers](/reviewers)
      * [For Editors](/editors)
      * [For Librarians](/librarians)
      * [For Publishers](/publishing_services)
      * [For Societies](/societies)
      * [For Conference Organizers](/conference_organizers)

      * [Open Access Policy](/openaccess)
      * [Institutional Open Access Program](/ioap)
      * [Special Issues Guidelines](/special_issues_guidelines)
      * [Editorial Process](/editorial_process)
      * [Research and Publication Ethics](/ethics)
      * [Article Processing Charges](/apc)
      * [Awards](/awards)
      * [Testimonials](/testimonials)

  * [Author Services](/authors/english)
  * [Initiatives](/about/initiatives)
    *       * [ Sciforum ](https://sciforum.net)
      * [ MDPI Books ](https://www.mdpi.com/books)
      * [ Preprints.org ](https://www.preprints.org)
      * [ Scilit ](https://www.scilit.com)
      * [ SciProfiles ](https://sciprofiles.com)
      * [ Encyclopedia ](https://encyclopedia.pub)
      * [ JAMS ](https://jams.pub)
      * [ Proceedings Series ](/about/proceedings)

  * [About](/about)
    *       * [ Overview ](/about)
      * [ Contact ](/about/contact)
      * [ Careers ](https://careers.mdpi.com)
      * [ News ](/about/announcements)
      * [ Press ](/about/press)
      * [ Blog ](http://blog.mdpi.com/)




[Sign In / Sign Up](/user/login) [Submit](            https://susy.mdpi.com/user/manuscripts/upload?journal=energies
    )

 

 

Search for Articles:

Title / Keyword

Author / Affiliation / Email

Journal

All Journals Acoustics  Acta Microbiologica Hellenica (AMH)  Actuators  Adhesives  Administrative Sciences  Adolescents  Advances in Respiratory Medicine (ARM)  Aerobiology  Aerospace  Agriculture  AgriEngineering  Agrochemicals  Agronomy  AI  AI Sensors  Air  Algorithms  Allergies  Alloys  Analytica  Analytics  Anatomia  Anesthesia Research  Animals  Antibiotics  Antibodies  Antioxidants  Applied Biosciences  Applied Mechanics  Applied Microbiology  Applied Nano  Applied Sciences  Applied System Innovation (ASI)  AppliedChem  AppliedMath  Aquaculture Journal  Architecture  Arthropoda  Arts  Astronomy  Atmosphere  Atoms  Audiology Research  Automation  Axioms  Bacteria  Batteries  Behavioral Sciences  Beverages  Big Data and Cognitive Computing (BDCC)  BioChem  Bioengineering  Biologics  Biology  Biology and Life Sciences Forum  Biomass  Biomechanics  BioMed  Biomedicines  BioMedInformatics  Biomimetics  Biomolecules  Biophysica  Biosensors  Biosphere  BioTech  Birds  Blockchains  Brain Sciences  Buildings  Businesses  C (Journal of Carbon Research)  Cancers  Cardiogenetics  Catalysts  Cells  Ceramics  Challenges  ChemEngineering  Chemistry  Chemistry Proceedings  Chemosensors  Children  Chips  CivilEng  Clean Technologies (Clean Technol.)  Climate  Clinical and Translational Neuroscience (CTN)  Clinical Bioenergetics  Clinics and Practice  Clocks & Sleep  Coasts  Coatings  Colloids and Interfaces  Colorants  Commodities  Complexities  Complications  Compounds  Computation  Computer Sciences & Mathematics Forum  Computers  Condensed Matter  Conservation  Construction Materials  Corrosion and Materials Degradation (CMD)  Cosmetics  COVID  Craniomaxillofacial Trauma & Reconstruction (CMTR)  Crops  Cryo  Cryptography  Crystals  Current Issues in Molecular Biology (CIMB)  Current Oncology  Dairy  Data  Dentistry Journal  Dermato  Dermatopathology  Designs  Diabetology  Diagnostics  Dietetics  Digital  Disabilities  Diseases  Diversity  DNA  Drones  Drugs and Drug Candidates (DDC)  Dynamics  Earth  Ecologies  Econometrics  Economies  Education Sciences  Electricity  Electrochem  Electronic Materials  Electronics  Emergency Care and Medicine  Encyclopedia  Endocrines  Energies  Energy Storage and Applications (ESA)  Eng  Engineering Proceedings  Entropy  Environmental and Earth Sciences Proceedings  Environments  Epidemiologia  Epigenomes  European Burn Journal (EBJ)  European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE)  Fermentation  Fibers  FinTech  Fire  Fishes  Fluids  Foods  Forecasting  Forensic Sciences  Forests  Fossil Studies  Foundations  Fractal and Fractional (Fractal Fract)  Fuels  Future  Future Internet  Future Pharmacology  Future Transportation  Galaxies  Games  Gases  Gastroenterology Insights  Gastrointestinal Disorders  Gastronomy  Gels  Genealogy  Genes  Geographies  GeoHazards  Geomatics  Geometry  Geosciences  Geotechnics  Geriatrics  Glacies  Gout, Urate, and Crystal Deposition Disease (GUCDD)  Grasses  Green Health  Hardware  Healthcare  Hearts  Hemato  Hematology Reports  Heritage  Histories  Horticulturae  Hospitals  Humanities  Humans  Hydrobiology  Hydrogen  Hydrology  Hygiene  Immuno  Infectious Disease Reports  Informatics  Information  Infrastructures  Inorganics  Insects  Instruments  Intelligent Infrastructure and Construction  International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH)  International Journal of Financial Studies (IJFS)  International Journal of Molecular Sciences (IJMS)  International Journal of Neonatal Screening (IJNS)  International Journal of Orofacial Myology and Myofunctional Therapy (IJOM)  International Journal of Plant Biology (IJPB)  International Journal of Topology  International Journal of Translational Medicine (IJTM)  International Journal of Turbomachinery, Propulsion and Power (IJTPP)  International Medical Education (IME)  Inventions  IoT  ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information (IJGI)  J  Journal of Ageing and Longevity (JAL)  Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease (JCDD)  Journal of Clinical & Translational Ophthalmology (JCTO)  Journal of Clinical Medicine (JCM)  Journal of Composites Science (J. Compos. Sci.)  Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy (JCP)  Journal of Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease (JDAD)  Journal of Developmental Biology (JDB)  Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Analyses (JETA)  Journal of Eye Movement Research (JEMR)  Journal of Functional Biomaterials (JFB)  Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology (JFMK)  Journal of Fungi (JoF)  Journal of Imaging (J. Imaging)  Journal of Intelligence (J. Intell.)  Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications (JLPEA)  Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing (JMMP)  Journal of Marine Science and Engineering (JMSE)  Journal of Market Access & Health Policy (JMAHP)  Journal of Mind and Medical Sciences (JMMS)  Journal of Molecular Pathology (JMP)  Journal of Nanotheranostics (JNT)  Journal of Nuclear Engineering (JNE)  Journal of Otorhinolaryngology, Hearing and Balance Medicine (JOHBM)  Journal of Parks  Journal of Personalized Medicine (JPM)  Journal of Pharmaceutical and BioTech Industry (JPBI)  Journal of Respiration (JoR)  Journal of Risk and Financial Management (JRFM)  Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks (JSAN)  Journal of the Oman Medical Association (JOMA)  Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research (JTAER)  Journal of Vascular Diseases (JVD)  Journal of Xenobiotics (JoX)  Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens (JZBG)  Journalism and Media  Kidney and Dialysis  Kinases and Phosphatases  Knowledge  LabMed  Laboratories  Land  Languages  Laws  Life  Limnological Review  Lipidology  Liquids  Literature  Livers  Logics  Logistics  Lubricants  Lymphatics  Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction (MAKE)  Machines  Macromol  Magnetism  Magnetochemistry  Marine Drugs  Materials  Materials Proceedings  Mathematical and Computational Applications (MCA)  Mathematics  Medical Sciences  Medical Sciences Forum  Medicina  Medicines  Membranes  Merits  Metabolites  Metals  Meteorology  Methane  Methods and Protocols (MPs)  Metrics  Metrology  Micro  Microbiology Research  Micromachines  Microorganisms  Microplastics  Microwave  Minerals  Mining  Modelling  Modern Mathematical Physics  Molbank  Molecules  Multimedia  Multimodal Technologies and Interaction (MTI)  Muscles  Nanoenergy Advances  Nanomanufacturing  Nanomaterials  NDT  Network  Neuroglia  Neurology International  NeuroSci  Nitrogen  Non-Coding RNA (ncRNA)  Nursing Reports  Nutraceuticals  Nutrients  Obesities  Oceans  Onco  Optics  Oral  Organics  Organoids  Osteology  Oxygen  Parasitologia  Particles  Pathogens  Pathophysiology  Pediatric Reports  Pets  Pharmaceuticals  Pharmaceutics  Pharmacoepidemiology  Pharmacy  Philosophies  Photochem  Photonics  Phycology  Physchem  Physical Sciences Forum  Physics  Physiologia  Plants  Plasma  Platforms  Pollutants  Polymers  Polysaccharides  Populations  Poultry  Powders  Proceedings  Processes  Prosthesis  Proteomes  Psychiatry International  Psychoactives  Psychology International  Publications  Purification  Quantum Beam Science (QuBS)  Quantum Reports  Quaternary  Radiation  Reactions  Real Estate  Receptors  Recycling  Regional Science and Environmental Economics (RSEE)  Religions  Remote Sensing  Reports  Reproductive Medicine (Reprod. Med.)  Resources  Rheumato  Risks  Robotics  Ruminants  Safety  Sci  Scientia Pharmaceutica (Sci. Pharm.)  Sclerosis  Seeds  Sensors  Separations  Sexes  Signals  Sinusitis  Smart Cities  Social Sciences  Société Internationale d’Urologie Journal (SIUJ)  Societies  Software  Soil Systems  Solar  Solids  Spectroscopy Journal  Sports  Standards  Stats  Stresses  Surfaces  Surgeries  Surgical Techniques Development  Sustainability  Sustainable Chemistry  Symmetry  SynBio  Systems  Targets  Taxonomy  Technologies  Telecom  Textiles  Thalassemia Reports  Therapeutics  Thermo  Time and Space  Tomography  Tourism and Hospitality  Toxics  Toxins  Transplantology  Trauma Care  Trends in Higher Education  Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease (TropicalMed)  Universe  Urban Science  Uro  Vaccines  Vehicles  Venereology  Veterinary Sciences  Vibration  Virtual Worlds  Viruses  Vision  Waste  Water  Wild  Wind  Women  World  World Electric Vehicle Journal (WEVJ)  Youth  Zoonotic Diseases 

Article Type

All Article Types Article Review Communication Editorial Abstract Book Review Brief Communication Brief Report Case Report Clinicopathological Challenge Comment Commentary Concept Paper Conference Report Correction Creative Data Descriptor Discussion Entry Essay Expression of Concern Extended Abstract Field Guide Giants in Urology Guidelines Hypothesis Interesting Images Letter New Book Received Obituary Opinion Perspective Proceeding Paper Project Report Protocol Registered Report Reply Retraction Short Note Study Protocol Systematic Review Technical Note Tutorial Urology around the World Viewpoint

 

 

Advanced Search

 

Section

Special Issue

Volume

Issue

Number

Page

 

Logical OperatorOperator

AND OR

Search Text

Search Type

All fields Title Abstract Keywords Authors Affiliations Doi Full Text References

 

_add_circle_outline_

_remove_circle_outline_

 

 

[Journals](/about/journals)

[Energies](/journal/energies)

[Volume 17](/1996-1073/17)

[Issue 1](/1996-1073/17/1)

10.3390/en17010249

[ ![energies-logo](https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/energies-logo.png?8600e93ff98dbf14) ](/journal/energies)

[ Submit to this Journal ](https://susy.mdpi.com/user/manuscripts/upload?form%5Bjournal_id%5D%3D7) [ Review for this Journal ](https://susy.mdpi.com/volunteer/journals/review) [ Propose a Special Issue ](/journalproposal/sendproposalspecialissue/energies)

► ▼ Article Menu 

## Article Menu

  * Academic Editor

[![](/profiles/246686/thumb/Chunhua_Liu.jpg)Chunhua Liu](https://sciprofiles.com/profile/246686?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name)

  * [Subscribe SciFeed](/1996-1073/17/1/249/scifeed_display)
  * Recommended Articles
  * Related Info Link

    * [Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Electric%20Vehicles%E2%80%94An%20Overview%20of%20Current%20Issues%E2%80%94Part%201%E2%80%94Environmental%20Impact%2C%20Source%20of%20Energy%2C%20Recycling%2C%20and%20Second%20Life%20of%20Battery)

  * More by Authors Links

    * on DOAJ

      * [Guzek, M.](http://doaj.org/search/articles?source=%7B%22query%22%3A%7B%22query_string%22%3A%7B%22query%22%3A%22%5C%22Marek%20Guzek%5C%22%22%2C%22default_operator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22default_field%22%3A%22bibjson.author.name%22%7D%7D%7D)
      *       * [Jackowski, J.](http://doaj.org/search/articles?source=%7B%22query%22%3A%7B%22query_string%22%3A%7B%22query%22%3A%22%5C%22Jerzy%20Jackowski%5C%22%22%2C%22default_operator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22default_field%22%3A%22bibjson.author.name%22%7D%7D%7D)
      *       * [Jurecki, R. S.](http://doaj.org/search/articles?source=%7B%22query%22%3A%7B%22query_string%22%3A%7B%22query%22%3A%22%5C%22Rafa%C5%82%20S.%20Jurecki%5C%22%22%2C%22default_operator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22default_field%22%3A%22bibjson.author.name%22%7D%7D%7D)
      *       * [Szumska, E. M.](http://doaj.org/search/articles?source=%7B%22query%22%3A%7B%22query_string%22%3A%7B%22query%22%3A%22%5C%22Emilia%20M.%20Szumska%5C%22%22%2C%22default_operator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22default_field%22%3A%22bibjson.author.name%22%7D%7D%7D)
      *       * [Zdanowicz, P.](http://doaj.org/search/articles?source=%7B%22query%22%3A%7B%22query_string%22%3A%7B%22query%22%3A%22%5C%22Piotr%20Zdanowicz%5C%22%22%2C%22default_operator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22default_field%22%3A%22bibjson.author.name%22%7D%7D%7D)
      *       * [Żmuda, M.](http://doaj.org/search/articles?source=%7B%22query%22%3A%7B%22query_string%22%3A%7B%22query%22%3A%22%5C%22Marcin%20%C5%BBmuda%5C%22%22%2C%22default_operator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22default_field%22%3A%22bibjson.author.name%22%7D%7D%7D)
      *     * on Google Scholar

      * [Guzek, M.](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Marek%20Guzek)
      *       * [Jackowski, J.](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Jerzy%20Jackowski)
      *       * [Jurecki, R. S.](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Rafa%C5%82%20S.%20Jurecki)
      *       * [Szumska, E. M.](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Emilia%20M.%20Szumska)
      *       * [Zdanowicz, P.](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Piotr%20Zdanowicz)
      *       * [Żmuda, M.](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Marcin%20%C5%BBmuda)
      *     * on PubMed

      * [Guzek, M.](http://www.pubmed.gov/?cmd=Search&term=Marek%20Guzek)
      *       * [Jackowski, J.](http://www.pubmed.gov/?cmd=Search&term=Jerzy%20Jackowski)
      *       * [Jurecki, R. S.](http://www.pubmed.gov/?cmd=Search&term=Rafa%C5%82%20S.%20Jurecki)
      *       * [Szumska, E. M.](http://www.pubmed.gov/?cmd=Search&term=Emilia%20M.%20Szumska)
      *       * [Zdanowicz, P.](http://www.pubmed.gov/?cmd=Search&term=Piotr%20Zdanowicz)
      *       * [Żmuda, M.](http://www.pubmed.gov/?cmd=Search&term=Marcin%20%C5%BBmuda)
      * 
/ajax/scifeed/subscribe

Article Views

Citations -

  * Table of Contents




Altmetric _share_ Share _announcement_ Help [ _format_quote_ Cite ](javascript:void\(0\);) [ _question_answer_ Discuss in SciProfiles ](https://sciprofiles.com/discussion-groups/public/10.3390/en17010249?utm_source=mpdi.com&utm_medium=publication&utm_campaign=discuss_in_sciprofiles "Discuss in Sciprofiles")

## Need Help?

### Support

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website. 

[ Get Support ](/about/contactform)

### Feedback

Please let us know what you think of our products and services. 

[ Give Feedback ](/feedback/send)

### Information

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI. 

[ Get Information ](/authors)

_clear_

## JSmol Viewer

_clear_

_first_page_

[ __Download PDF](/1996-1073/17/1/249/pdf?version=1704269192)

_settings_

[ Order Article Reprints ](/1996-1073/17/1/249/reprints)

Font Type: 

_Arial_ _Georgia_ _Verdana_

Font Size:

Aa Aa Aa

Line Spacing:

__ __ __

Column Width:

__ __ __

Background:

__

__

__

Open AccessReview

#  Electric Vehicles--An Overview of Current Issues--Part 1--Environmental Impact, Source of Energy, Recycling, and Second Life of Battery 

by 

Marek Guzek

![](/profiles/1317109/thumb/Marek_Guzek.png)Marek Guzek

[ SciProfiles ](https://sciprofiles.com/profile/1317109?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name)[ Scilit ](https://scilit.com/scholars?q=Marek%20Guzek)[ Preprints.org ](https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Marek%20Guzek&field1=authors)[ Google Scholar ](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Marek%20Guzek)

1[ __](/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#ffd09c919bd29c9896d093d09a929e9693d28f8d908b9a9c8b969091dccfcfcf9cc99bce99cfc7cfc9cbcccf9ecec7cec8cfc7cfc9cd9bce9bce9ecbcccfc7cfc6cec7cbccce9bcfce)[![](https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/orcid.png?0465bc3812adeb52?1740558760)](https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9871-2230),

Jerzy Jackowski

![](/profiles/1967956/thumb/Jerzy_Jackowski.png)Jerzy Jackowski

[ SciProfiles ](https://sciprofiles.com/profile/1967956?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name)[ Scilit ](https://scilit.com/scholars?q=Jerzy%20Jackowski)[ Preprints.org ](https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Jerzy%20Jackowski&field1=authors)[ Google Scholar ](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Jerzy%20Jackowski)

2[ __](/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#5a7539343e77393d337536753f373b3336772a28352e3f392e333534796a6a6a3c6c3b6b626b6a6b696e6e6a6a6a386a636a6b6a6f6b3e6b636a6b6a69683b6b3e6a386b3f6e6e6a3c6a3f6b3c6e6e6b3b6a6c)[![](https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/orcid.png?0465bc3812adeb52?1740558760)](https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5787-1451),

Rafał S. Jurecki

![](/profiles/1366586/thumb/Rafał_Stanisław_Jurecki.png)Rafał S. Jurecki

[ SciProfiles ](https://sciprofiles.com/profile/1366586?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name)[ Scilit ](https://scilit.com/scholars?q=Rafa%C5%82%20S.%20Jurecki)[ Preprints.org ](https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Rafa%C5%82%20S.%20Jurecki&field1=authors)[ Google Scholar ](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Rafa%C5%82%20S.%20Jurecki)

3,*[__](/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#6b4408050f46080c024407440e060a0207461b19041f0e081f020405485b5b5e085c595a535b5c5b5b5a5c5a5a5a525a0958595b5d5b5c5e085a525a095a5c5a0e5a5a5a5c5e085b595a0e)[![](https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/orcid.png?0465bc3812adeb52?1740558760)](https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0105-1283),

Emilia M. Szumska

![](/profiles/1275323/thumb/Emilia_Szumska.png)Emilia M. Szumska

[ SciProfiles ](https://sciprofiles.com/profile/1275323?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name)[ Scilit ](https://scilit.com/scholars?q=Emilia%20M.%20Szumska)[ Preprints.org ](https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Emilia%20M.%20Szumska&field1=authors)[ Google Scholar ](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Emilia%20M.%20Szumska)

3[ __](/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#18377b767c357b7f713774377d7579717435686a776c7d7b6c7177763b2828292e2e2d297e29282820292e287d282c2a2d292929282c7a287d287b28282821282e28282c7a292d2821)[![](https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/orcid.png?0465bc3812adeb52?1740558760)](https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6024-6748),

Piotr Zdanowicz

![](/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png)Piotr Zdanowicz

[ SciProfiles ](https://sciprofiles.com/profile/2584271?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name)[ Scilit ](https://scilit.com/scholars?q=Piotr%20Zdanowicz)[ Preprints.org ](https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Piotr%20Zdanowicz&field1=authors)[ Google Scholar ](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Piotr%20Zdanowicz)

1[ __](/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#1f307c717b327c78763073307a727e7673326f6d706b7a7c6b7670713c2f2f2e26282f2e792f2b2f2d2a7a2f7e2e2b2e2e2e7a2e792f282e262e2c2f7e2c2f2f2f2f282a7a2e2a2e2b2f2a2a7a2f2f2e7c)and

Marcin Żmuda

![](/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png)Marcin Żmuda

[ SciProfiles ](https://sciprofiles.com/profile/1594927?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name)[ Scilit ](https://scilit.com/scholars?q=Marcin%20%C5%BBmuda)[ Preprints.org ](https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Marcin%20%C5%BBmuda&field1=authors)[ Google Scholar ](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Marcin%20%C5%BBmuda)

2[![](https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/orcid.png?0465bc3812adeb52?1740558760)](https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4990-6378)

1

Faculty of Transport, Warsaw University of Technology, Koszykowa 75, 00-662 Warsaw, Poland

2

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Vehicles and Transportation, Military University of Technology (WAT), Street gen. Sylwestra Kaliskiego 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland

3

Department of Automotive Engineering and Transport, Faculty of Mechatronics and Mechanical Engineering, Kielce University of Technology, Ave. Tysiąclecia Państwa Polskiego 7, 25-314 Kielce, Poland

*

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. 

_Energies_ **2024** , _17_(1), 249; <https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010249>

Submission received: 27 November 2023 / Revised: 27 December 2023 / Accepted: 31 December 2023 / Published: 3 January 2024

(This article belongs to the Special Issue [Motor Vehicles Energy Management](        
    /journal/energies/special_issues/9LKGR5G760
))  


Download _keyboard_arrow_down_

[Download PDF](/1996-1073/17/1/249/pdf?version=1704269192)   
Download PDF with Cover   
Download XML   
[Download Epub](/1996-1073/17/1/249/epub)   


Browse Figures

[ ](https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-17-00249/article_deploy/html/images/energies-17-00249-g001.png?1704269270 "
                        <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/>
                                                    <p>Cumulative carbon dioxide emissions in the production phase, in kg-CO<sub>2</sub> \(based on \[<a href="#B13-energies-17-00249" class="html-bibr">13</a>\]\).</p>
                                                ") [ ](https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-17-00249/article_deploy/html/images/energies-17-00249-g002.png?1704269271 "
                        <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/>
                                                    <p>Emissions in the entire life cycle of a vehicle \(150,000 km, 10 years\) in kg-CO<sub>2</sub> \(based on \[<a href="#B13-energies-17-00249" class="html-bibr">13</a>\]\).</p>
                                                ") [ ](https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-17-00249/article_deploy/html/images/energies-17-00249-g003.png?1704269272 "
                        <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/>
                                                    <p>The share of primary production by energy source \(based on data from \[<a href="#B72-energies-17-00249" class="html-bibr">72</a>,<a href="#B73-energies-17-00249" class="html-bibr">73</a>,<a href="#B74-energies-17-00249" class="html-bibr">74</a>,<a href="#B75-energies-17-00249" class="html-bibr">75</a>,<a href="#B76-energies-17-00249" class="html-bibr">76</a>\]\).</p>
                                                ") [ ](https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-17-00249/article_deploy/html/images/energies-17-00249-g004.png?1704269274 "
                        <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/>
                                                    <p>Battery electric life in a circular economy and diagram of decision making in LiBs second life \(based on \[<a href="#B93-energies-17-00249" class="html-bibr">93</a>,<a href="#B105-energies-17-00249" class="html-bibr">105</a>\]\).</p>
                                                ") [ ](https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-17-00249/article_deploy/html/images/energies-17-00249-g005.png?1704269275 "
                        <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/>
                                                    <p>Battery selected possible applications of used EV batteries \(based on \[<a href="#B106-energies-17-00249" class="html-bibr">106</a>\]\).</p>
                                                ")

[Versions Notes](/1996-1073/17/1/249/notes)

## Abstract

**:**

The rapid transition to electric-drive vehicles is taking place globally. Most automakers are adding electric models to their lineups to prepare for the new electric future. From the analysis of the automotive market, it is evident that there is a growing interest in such vehicles. They are expected to account for half the models released after 2030. Electric-drive vehicles include battery-electric vehicles. As indicated in the research literature and emphasized by experts, electric vehicles (EVs) are supposed to be an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional vehicles. The rising number and variety of EVs contribute to a better understanding of their performance. With more EVs on the market, there are problems to be solved and challenges to overcome. This article is the first part of a two-article series reviewing the strengths and weaknesses of EVs. The article analyzes the environmental effects of EVs at each stage of their life cycle, compares large- and small-scale recycling methods, and explores the potential applications of second-life batteries. This article is an attempt to find out how environmentally friendly EVs are.

Keywords: 

[electric vehicle](/search?q=electric+vehicle); [electric drive](/search?q=electric+drive); [EV safety](/search?q=EV+safety); [environment protection](/search?q=environment+protection); [source of energy](/search?q=source+of+energy); [LCA](/search?q=LCA); [recycling](/search?q=recycling); [second life of batteries](/search?q=second+life+of+batteries)




##  1\. Introduction

The use of electric propulsion in motor vehicles is not a new idea. The pioneer of electrically powered vehicles was Thomas Devenport, who built a small vehicle powered by a Volta galvanic battery in 1834 [1]. The development of the lead-acid battery in 1859 by Gaston Planté, and the construction of an alternator in 1866 by Warner von Siemens had a significant impact on the development of vehicles. The initial electrically powered vehicle function was based on a tricycle developed by Percy and Ayton in 1882, which was powered by batteries with a weight of approximately 45 kg. The operation of electric vehicles at the time, compared to steam vehicles, revealed many advantages, where the key ones included: quiet operation, ease of handling and driving, good dynamics, ease of motor installation (with smaller dimensions compared to steam), and simplification of the drive train. By the end of the 19th century, electric carriages for hire and small two-seater electric vehicles with a range of approximately 48 km appeared in some European cities. In 1898, the electric vehicle set a new speed record of 63.2 km/h. In addition to developments in the technology of the vehicles themselves, there have been developments in the accompanying infrastructure (e.g., chargers called Electrant—short for electric hydrant) and energy storage technology (e.g., nickel–iron Edison cells). Electric vehicles of the time however did not replace horse-drawn vehicles. The main reasons for that were the short range of the vehicles, the high manufacturing costs, and the need to frequently recharge the exceptionally heavy batteries. Electric vehicles returned in the 1970s. The fuel crisis, combined with increasing air quality problems in cities has given rise to the search for alternatives to internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). The EV1 presented by General Motors in 1996 was a breakthrough design. The vehicle remained in production until 1999 and enjoyed a positive reputation among users. Another design of importance in the history of electric cars was the Roadster presented by Tesla Motors in 2007. The vehicle was equipped with lithium-ion batteries and had a range of nearly 400 km on a single charge. Today, most car manufacturers have electric models in their range. There are also corporations entering the market that produce only electric vehicles, such as, for instance, Tesla Motors and BYD Auto. 

Electric-powered vehicles are gaining an increasing share of the passenger and commercial vehicle market. Electric vehicles include battery electric cars (BEVs), vehicles in which an internal combustion engine cooperates with an electric drive (HEV—Hybrid Electric Vehicles, PHEV—Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles) or vehicles equipped with fuel cells or electrochemical batteries (FCEV—Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles). Electric drives in various types of vehicles are subject to constant research and improvement. Vehicles in which electric drives cooperate with other energy sources require complex systems related to energy flow management or the battery charging process [2]. For example, in FCEV technology, analyses related to thermal safety and degradation of fuel cells, aging suppression to trade-off energy sources durability, and hydrogen mass consumption [3,4]. 

Several challenges can be identified ahead of electric propulsion technology at present with optimism regarding its future. New technologies applied to electric vehicle propulsion systems have the potential to make a significant contribution to the development of intelligent and sustainable transport and to significantly reduce energy consumption and emissions under various road conditions [5,6]. 

Today, electric cars account for 15% of all passenger cars currently used on a world scale. The increasing number of cars currently in use allows for testing the electric drive technology under regular operating conditions. User feedback and data derived from electronic on-board systems installed in the vehicles provide valuable information for manufacturers and serve as the basis for further EV development. However, every so often, some voices and situations make it clear that electric cars need significant improvements. 

However, you should be aware that with the popularization of electric vehicles, certain problems also arise. Undoubtedly, the advantages of EVs include zero emissions of pollutants and noise. However, there will be environmental concerns. Selected issues include the impact of EVs on the environment during the production phase, the purity of the electricity used to charge these vehicles, and the risks associated with recycling.

For the most part, scientific papers on EVs focus on issues related to EV operation (i.e., efficiency of the drive under given conditions, accuracy in estimating range and energy consumption, lithium-ion battery technology), cost of use and purchase, factors relevant to purchase, battery charging technology, or planning the location of charging infrastructure. This paper aims to present the environmental aspects of the life cycle of an electric vehicle. This work attempts to assess whether the production, use, and recycling phases of an electric vehicle impose a burden on the environment and natural resources. This article provides a critical analysis of the effects EVs may have on the environment during their life cycle. It attempts to answer the following questions:

  * Are EVs environmentally friendly over their entire life cycle?

  * Can EVs be considered zero-emission vehicles?

  * Can maximum efficiency be achieved while reclaiming the critical raw materials (CRMs) from spent EV batteries?

  * Will solutions like ‘second-life batteries’ reduce the negative impact of EVs on the environment?




The critical study of EVs presented in this article aims to highlight the fact that the long-term implications of electromobility may be in some aspects negative. The analysis was based only on data found in the research literature. 

The review aimed to highlight the following problems that the development of electric vehicles must face:

  * The environmentally friendly electric vehicles assessment significantly depends on the emission assessment method used,

  * A small share of renewable energy sources in the electricity production structure has a significant impact on the environmental friendliness of electric vehicles,

  * Recycling of electric vehicle batteries should ensure maximum recovery of rare earth metals,

  * There is a need to develop second-life solutions used on a global scale that will extend the life of electric vehicle batteries.




The following literature review methodology was used. The literature review was completed in August 2023 using various databases (mainly Web of Science and Scopus), press releases, and the European Union legal acts database. The literature was identified using: a title, abstract, and keywords in accordance with the search profile of the mentioned literature sources. The focus was on the following terms: electric vehicles/cars, battery electric vehicles, environmental impact of electric vehicles/cars, electric vehicles/cars battery recycling, battery second life, and recycling process. 

The article is divided into two parts. In this—Part 1, the electric drive is presented in terms of its use in motor vehicles. The advantages of this propulsion system and the risks arising at the manufacturing, operating, and recycling stages of the vehicle are indicated herein. The remaining, particularly important issues concerning the availability and types of infrastructure dedicated to EVs and the safety of EV use are presented in Part 2. 

This article discusses the selected problems related to the impact on the natural environment posed by the production, use, and disposal process of EVs; it also discusses the structure of electricity generation sources in selected countries; the methods of recycling Li-ion batteries as well as their potential, and subsequent applications. The analysis of the areas mentioned above presents a unique perspective related to the review nature of the article.

The article is divided into chapters. Section 2 assesses the environmental impact of EVs. Attention was focused on the entire life cycle of the electric vehicle, i.e., from the sourcing of materials through to the production of the assemblies and vehicle, its operation, and disposal. The manufacturing processes of electric and conventional vehicles were compared mainly in terms of CO2 emissions. Section 3 seeks to answer the question of how green an electric vehicle is. To answer this question, an analysis was made of the contribution of individual energy generation sources to the total electricity generation process. The concept of the energy mix was introduced for this purpose. This section presents a detailed analysis of the energy mix carried out for European Union countries. Section 4 describes EV battery recycling and reusability. EU regulations related to recycling efficiency targets for Li-ion batteries were cited. The most popular commercial recycling methods for Li-ion batteries are described and compared. The possibility of a second life for batteries from EVs was identified and provided together with the citations of such solutions.

##  2\. Assessment of the Environmental Impact of EVs 

When analyzing the impact of motorization on the environment, it is possible to distinguish impact categories that define the types of environmental effects. Examples of impact categories include climate change, ozone depletion, eutrophication, acidification, smog formation, poisoning of ecosystems, deterioration of human health, reduction in fossil fuel, mineral and water resources, and conversion of land with natural ecosystems. A vehicle fleet consisting solely of hybrid vehicles which still use the internal combustion engine may not be sufficient to meet the CO2 emission value targets as specified in the European Green Deal. The solution is to increase the share of electric vehicles among all vehicles in the EU. 

Electric vehicles are described as zero-emission and eco-friendly, as they do not emit any dust and gas compounds at the point of use (this is the Tank-to-Wheel (TTW) phase). Therefore, in the comparison of an electric car with a hybrid and conventional vehicle during ICEV operation, the EV seems as the most ‘green’. In order to objectively assess the environmental impact of a vehicle, emissions during manufacture and disposal (known as WTW—Well-to-Wheel) must be taken into account in addition to its useful life. However, numerous studies assessing the environmental impact of BEVs overlooked these stages.

The period from the sourcing of materials, production, and assembly through to the operation and disposal of the vehicle is referred to as their life cycle. By considering the life cycle of a vehicle, it is possible to have a closer look at the emissions at each stage of the cycle (LCA method—Life Cycle Assessment) and to estimate the total cost (LCC—Life Cycle Cost). The vehicle life cycle includes the following stages [7,8]:

  * Design stage;

  * The manufacturing stage, which also includes the extraction of raw materials, the manufacture of components and parts;

  * The stage of assembling the vehicle and transporting it to the storage facility or the end user;

  * The operational phase, consisting of the use and maintenance of the vehicle;

  * The disposal stage, including dismantling, sorting, partial reuse, recycling, or landfilling.




LCA takes into account the total emissions from the sourcing of the materials for a product to its disposal or so-called ‘cradle-to-grave’ [9]. While assessing the life cycle of a vehicle, the main input information includes fuels and other consumables, minerals, construction materials, electricity, and heat. The key products, however, include emissions, solid and liquid waste, noise, and electromagnetic radiation. This makes it possible to identify and quantify the materials used and forms of energy and waste introduced into the environment as well as to assess the environmental impact of these materials, energy, and waste.

Another form of help in assessing the environmental impact of an electric vehicle includes the estimation of the ‘carbon footprint’ (CFP). This method includes estimating the total amount of greenhouse gas emissions produced at each stage of a vehicle’s life cycle. The carbon footprint is defined as the total value of CO2 and other greenhouse gas emissions converted into CO2 equivalents, which arise from the extraction of the raw materials necessary to manufacture the vehicle, through its production, use, and disposal (so-called from-cradle-to-grave) [10,11,12].

The initial phases of the vehicle life cycle can be described as ‘from-cradle-to-gate’. These are the stages that take into account the sourcing of materials for vehicle components and parts, their manufacture, the assembly of components, and the complete vehicle. Taking into account the extraction of metal ores and materials, the production of parts and components, and their assembly for all vehicle components, excluding the engine and drivetrain, the CO2 emission levels for electric and internal combustion vehicles are similar [13]. A comparative study dealing with the lifetime of electric and conventional VW Caddy vehicles [13], based on the data provided in the Ecoinvent Database, indicates that batteries are the major contributor to high CO2 emissions associated with EV production (Figure 1).

In the production of a complete vehicle, the ICEV has about 60% lower CO2 emissions than the electric vehicle [14]. That is due to the high level of greenhouse gas emissions in the production of lithium-ion batteries, electric traction motors, and electronic controllers. The authors of the paper [15] also noted that EVs display higher mercury emissions in the production stage. It was found that with current technologies, the lifecycle mercury emissions of electric vehicles with a range of 300 miles are 92% higher than those of conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.

At the EV production stage, the electrochemical battery is one of the most critical components in terms of greenhouse gas emissions in this area. According to research presented in the paper [16], the global warming potential (an indicator to quantify the greenhouse effect of a substance) associated with the production of electric vehicles is between 87 and 95 g of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilometer (g CO2-eg/km). In the case of the production of a conventionally powered vehicle, this value was 43 g CO2-eq/km and is about twice lower than for EVs. The higher carbon dioxide levels from the production of EVs are compensated for by lowering the CO2 emissions from their use. This, however, is dependent on the emissions related to the structure of electricity production. 

Figure 1 shows the total carbon dioxide emissions during the production of an electric and gasoline vehicle.

Battery production contributes to between 35% and 41% of the global warming potential at the EV manufacturing stage [16]. The battery manufacturing process is responsible for a significant proportion of the emissions due to the highly energy-intensive processes required to obtain the materials used to make the batteries. Replacing conventional vehicles with electric vehicles represents a significant change in natural resource use patterns around the world. In particular, the global demand required for battery production of lithium, cobalt, graphite, other rare minerals, and earth elements is expected to significantly increase [17]. Moreover, many works point to an unstable supply chain for the raw materials used in the production of lithium-ion batteries. The uneven distribution of the basic minerals needed to produce Li-ion may be affected by various types of geopolitical and economic turmoil. The extraction and processing of the raw materials of rare minerals and earth elements are scattered around the world, unlike oil deposits. The fossil fuel supply chain has already been established and remains relatively stable, while the Li-ion supply chain is under development and continues to evolve rapidly [18,19,20].

Considering the ever-changing manufacturing technologies manufacturing, it is difficult to fully estimate the values of greenhouse gas and energy emissions in the production of powertrain components and elements. Based on a review of 51 papers regarding the LCA of conventional and electric vehicles, the authors of the paper [21] concluded that there are numerous analyses and differences in the environmental impact of EV and ICEV production. The work [22], based on a broad review of work on LCA of vehicles with different powertrain types, concludes that the assessment of environmental impacts in combination with resource procurement, material processing, and parts manufacturing is an area where knowledge is lacking and requires further research. However, it should be mentioned that electric powertrain components require significantly larger volumes of raw materials and rare earth metals during production compared to ICEVs. While driving, BEVs emit virtually no harmful particulate and gaseous emissions (except for the wear products, e.g., friction linings, and tires). This results in low overall greenhouse gas emissions during the operational phase. As much as 75–95% of the life cycle GHG emissions of ICEVs arise from the combustion of fuel during operation [23]. In the use phase, the environmental performance of EVs is strongly dependent on the size and energy capacity of the battery, and the type and method of power generation used to charge the battery [24,25]. As the results of the analyses presented in the paper [26] have shown, increasing the energy density of batteries by 100 Wh/kg can reduce air pollutant emissions over the life of an EV by 14–20%. It is important that EVs have the longest possible lifetime mileage, as close as possible to that of an internal combustion vehicle. Significant environmental benefits can thus be achieved [27,28]. However, the battery life is much shorter than that of the vehicle. This carries with it the need to change the battery during the use of an electric vehicle. The energy storage efficiency of a lithium-ion battery decreases with time because its degradation progresses with time. The user is thus faced with the dilemma of whether to replace the battery or the vehicle.

Figure 2 shows the total CO2 emissions by electric (VW e-Golf) and gasoline vehicles (VW Golf VII 1.4 TSI 140 KM) over their life cycle. The calculations of the cumulative CO2 emissions associated with both types of vehicles took into account the European conditions (average “European mix”). The calculations cover the whole EV lifespan, from production to disposal, with a long period of use of 10 years and a total of 150,000 km of driving.

During the use of EVs, an important issue is how the electricity is produced, as this is the main cause of the environmental impact of EVs during the operational phase. Only when global electricity generation is clean and essentially free of CO2 emissions from fossil fuels will electric vehicles be able to realize their full potential in reducing greenhouse gas emissions from transport.

In the end-of-life phase, the end-of-life vehicle is taken directly to a dismantling station, where it is dismantled. The automotive waste generated in such a project is selected and then disposed of by recovering parts and recycling raw materials. The essence of recycling is to minimize waste while reducing the need for raw materials and energy by incorporating recovered raw materials and materials into recycling. A wide variety of materials can be sourced from end-of-life vehicles; these materials include ferrous metals (71%), glass (3%), plastics (8%), rubber materials (5%), and light metals (7%) [29,30,31,32]. Electric vehicle powertrain components contain valuable resources that can be recycled or remanufactured. However, in particular, in the case of electric motors and lithium-ion battery systems, it involves the need to adapt the dismantling and recycling process [33,34].

As reported in the paper [35], more than 1.3 million tonnes of batteries from electric vehicles will be taken out of service by 2025. Such a large number of end-of-life Li-ion batteries pose a risk of serious environmental pollution and waste of resources. It is therefore necessary to introduce systems and chains for the effective collection and disposal of batteries. The battery recycling process depends on the type of battery, necessitating the development of a battery-specific approach [36,37]. According to the authors of the paper [38], the recycling of the steel, aluminum, and cathode material of the traction battery contributes to 61%, 13%, and 20%, respectively, of the total greenhouse gas value reduction produced during the life cycle of an electric vehicle.

In the long term, battery recycling may also play a key role in reducing demand for CRMs (c), more specifically, lithium and nickel. Recycled metals could meet 5.2–11.3% of the demand for new materials [39]. In particular, since, as stated in the work no. [40], there exists a potential risk of depletion of nickel, cobalt, and lithium reserves by 2050 [41].

Battery packs recovered from end-of-life electric vehicles can be reused in stationary applications, e.g., as part of the so-called ‘smart grid’ or as energy storage for photovoltaic systems [42,43]. Using electric vehicle batteries to store energy and save energy during peak hours is a strategy that can provide savings for residential users, thereby reducing the load on the electricity grid. Based on an extensive literature review of work on battery recycling from electric vehicles, the authors of the paper [44] concluded that a holistic approach to the integrated assessment of closed-loop and environmental aspects of batteries is, however, lacking. It was noted that in addition to repurposing and recycling, the EV life cycle should also include repair and maintenance, retrofitting, and/or battery reconditioning.

The analysis provides an answer to the first question, i.e., whether or not EVs can be regarded as environmentally friendly over their whole life cycle. In summary, the results of LCA analyses of vehicles with different types of powertrains presented in many papers show that the massive expansion of electrification of transport could shift the impact of greenhouse gas emissions to environmental burdens such as particulate matter (PMx) formation, acidification or resource depletion [45,46]. The shift of environmental burdens from the use phase to the extraction phase of raw materials and production implies a delocalization of impacts, which poses new challenges at environmental, social, and legal levels. Approximately 80% of the environmental burden of an EV’s life cycle depends on both the battery and the energy consumption during operation [47], where the battery accounts for 40–50% of total greenhouse gas emissions [48]. For the purpose of being able to talk about the positive impact of EVs on the environment, these vehicles should have a lower environmental impact than conventional vehicles during their lifetime. In the final phase of the EV life cycle, the possibility of recycling is limited due to the chemical composition of the batteries and the drive components [49,50]. Electric vehicles have been used in road transport for a relatively brief period compared to vehicles driven by an internal combustion engine. The analysis of the entire life cycle of vehicles allows assessing which type is more eco-friendly. The current decisions of lawmakers encourage the widespread use of electric vehicles. For that reason, the next decade is expected to bring improvements in the EV production process, as they currently generate more than twice as much CO2 as the production process of vehicles with internal combustion engines.

##  3\. The Energy Mix

As demonstrated in numerous publications, the use of EVs can make a significant contribution to reducing emissions. As emission levels are still high in a great number of large city centers, works are underway to identify emission sources in detail together with the manner of reducing them [51,52,53]. 

During use, electric cars do not generate emissions in this respect. However, these emissions may arise at the site of electric electricity generation. Therefore, the answer to the question: how green is an electric vehicle?—is not easy. In the countries where electric vehicles are in use, the share of clean energy available for installations varies. Indeed, the environmental performance of an electric vehicle is directly related to the emissions of harmful compounds [54] generated during the generation of the electricity required to charge the vehicle’s batteries. 

The share of energy generated from different sources is specified by the so-called energy mix. The energy mix is the structure (share) of individual sources in the production of such energy. The energy mix is constantly changing [55]. Electricity may come from a variety of sources: renewable and non-renewable, emitting and non-emitting [56,57].

In most countries, electricity may be generated by plants using non-renewable fossil fuels: coal (hard coal, lignite), oil, natural gas, nuclear, and renewable energy sources: hydroelectric plants, wind power [58], photovoltaic farms, etc. 

Depending on the specific characteristics of a country, its location, availability of fossil fuels, terrain, or atmospheric factors, the shares of each can vary significantly [59,60]. 

Within the EU, the emphasis on clean renewable energy generation is linked to the introduction of Directive (EU) 2018/2001 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2018 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources (recast) [61]. The European Commission has adopted a set of proposals to align the EU’s climate, energy, transport, and taxation policies aiming to reduce net greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by at least 55% by 2030 compared to the levels registered in the 1990s [62]. All 27 EU Member States have committed to making the EU the first climate-neutral area by 2050. In 2020, the EU’s target was a reduction of 20% in GHG. In fact, an average reduction of 31.7% was achieved within the EU [54]. Thus, the objective has been achieved. The 50% GHG reduction level was recorded in Europe by four countries: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Romania. 

Renewable energy may also have an impact on the economies of the other Member States [56,60,63,64]. The ETC Carbon Emission Trade scheme related to the cost of CO2 allowances also has a major impact on emitting energy sources; hence, the need for changes in the structure of energy procurement [65].

In several countries, works are carried out to define the direction of energy systems, specifically regarding renewable energy sources [66,67]. In the EU, national energy participation issues are also being addressed. Articles [68,69] analyzed the impact of fossil sources on the energy mix. Based on Eurostat data, the energy mix in the European Union in 2021 was dominated by renewable energy—49%, nuclear energy—31.3% and solid fossil fuels—18.1%, natural gas—6.4%, crude oil—3.1%. It is however important to remember that within the EU, energy production only covered 44% of the energy needs; the remaining 56% were imports [70]. 

Energy production varies considerably between the EU Member States. Among European countries, there are several countries where the share of energy obtained from renewable sources is very high, e.g., Malta and Iceland—(100%), Latvia (99.5%), and Cyprus (95.9%). Nuclear energy has a high share in France (75.6%), Belgium (70.4%) and Slovakia (58.3%). Electricity drawn from the combustion of solid fuels dominates in Poland at 71.5% [71], Estonia at 55.9%, and the Czech Republic at 44.5%. Natural gas is the main source of electricity in the Netherlands, as it accounts for 58.4%, while in Norway, it is 47%, and in Ireland, it is 41.6%. Crude oil supplemented the energy balance in most countries, including Norway (45.4%), Denmark (34.7%), and Croatia (16%) [70]. 

Such diverse shares of the energy mix are the result of country-specific characteristics, locations, deposits, and policies. A summary of the data for each country is presented in Figure 3.

Electricity production issues are being addressed worldwide. In the UEA, works are underway to identify an appropriate energy mix by 2030 which would guarantee energy security for the projected population, keeping energy prices at a certain level while minimizing CO2 emissions [70]. Considering the fact that China [73], the USA [74], Japan [75] and India [76] are among the largest electricity consumers in the world, many publications also address these issues [77,78,79,80]. Therefore, it is worth pointing to the relatively low share of renewable energy in the USA and China Energy Mix—about 10%. This is four times smaller than average value for the EU 27. In China or India, the participation of energy from solid fuels is quite high. The high share of energy from renewable energy sources reduces CO2 emissions during electricity production. The more it produces energy from renewable energy sources, the greener electric cars become. This results in less environmental pollution when charging the battery.

To power EVs, we use locally produced electricity. Thus, the answer to the next question addressed in this article, i.e., whether EVs are zero-emission vehicles, is negative. Since the charging of EVs adds to the overall electricity demand in the country where they are used, EVs are a real strain on the national power grid, and consequently, the national energy mix.

In light of the above, the technology allowing the production of electricity that generates low-emissions or renewable electricity sources used in EVs are areas of exceptional importance. Replacing combustion engine vehicles with EVs is going to require the generation of a significant amount of electricity to satisfy transport needs. Currently, the methods of generating electricity vary between different countries or parts of the world as they depend mainly on natural resources, climate conditions as well as regional policy. For this reason, appropriate legal regulations may appear in this area, bearing similarity to those that are currently in force with respect to vehicles with internal combustion engines (which determine the amount of bio-components in the fuel) while in effect stimulating the development of the green energy market. Although electric vehicles do not emit greenhouse gases while in operation, they display high emissions in both the production and recycling stages and require significant energy input.

The current global trend (or process) of replacing fossil fuels with low-emission or renewable energy sources for the purpose of meeting the demands posed by electrified transport is going to require significant financial outlays and may thus cause the extension of the process throughout time.

##  4\. EV Battery Recycling and Second-Life

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have emerged as the battery of choice used in hybrid and electric cars as a result of the continuing process of improvement and refinement of energy storage devices [72,81]. The main advantages of LIBs include [82] their small size, relatively long lifespan, high energy density, high number of recharges (which translates into long service life), low maintenance costs, high power, low weight, no memory effect and low self-discharge rates per day. With these qualities, lithium-ion batteries provide vehicles with sufficiently high torque to achieve high speeds and a relatively long driving range. 

If the LIBs capacity falls below 80%, they are believed to be no longer eligible for powering hybrid vehicles [81]. These batteries can be recycled or used in other applications. Recycling provides opportunities for reusing products, securing the supply chain, and overcoming dependency on imported raw materials. 

The recycling process becomes particularly important as it is estimated that the demand for key raw materials that are essential for battery production will increase, while their availability will decrease (due to finite/exhaustible resources) [83].

Based on research on chemical compounds (continuing since the 1980s) that can be used in accumulators/batteries to power engines or electric motors in BEVs or HEVs, the following types of accumulators/batteries have been developed: sodium–beta, nickel–zinc, nickel–iron (Edison cells), nickel–cadmium (Ni-Cd), lead–acid, nickel metal hydride (Ni-MH), lithium–ion (Li-ion), lithium polymer, lithium–ion polymer, lithium–nickel–manganese, lithium–magnesium, sodium–nickel–chloride, sodium–sulfur (high-temperature battery) and several other types. Currently, Ni-MH and lithium batteries stay on top of the competition [82,84].

####  4.1. Selected EU Legal Regulations

One of the main reasons why an increasing number of vehicles are fitted with electric or hybrid drive systems is that manufacturers are legally required to meet stringent exhaust emission standards, which are complemented by an increasing body of legislation aimed to replace combustion engines with zero-emission engines. In an effort to boost recycling and promote environmental measures, the European Union policy makers have introduced laws imposing an obligation on vehicle manufacturers to keep reusability, recyclability, and recoverability requirements in mind when designing new vehicles, e.g., to employ solutions to make recycling and recovery easier [81,84,85]. New vehicles may only be sold in the EU if they may be reused and/or recycled to a minimum of 85% by weight or reused and/or recovered to a minimum of 95% by weight. Also, critical raw materials (CRMs) include lithium and cobalt, which are both vital for the production of batteries, while the European Union is heavily dependent on the importation of these materials from outside the EU [86,87]. In order to eliminate bottlenecks in the supply chains and diversify the supply sources of critical raw materials, the EU focuses on the recovery of materials in the recycling process on the path to a circular economy. In accordance with Directive 2006/66/EC, as amended [88], the EU Member States shall take necessary measures to maximize the separate collection of waste batteries and accumulators and to minimize the disposal of batteries and accumulators as mixed municipal waste in order to achieve a high level of recycling for all waste batteries and accumulators. The directive also requires that manufacturers design their appliances in such a way that waste batteries and accumulators can be readily removed. 

According to [89], sustainable batteries and vehicles underpin the mobility of the future. To progress swiftly in enhancing the sustainability of the emerging battery and accumulator value chain for electro-mobility and boost the circular potential of all batteries, a new regulatory framework should be introduced. Work on the new legislation to introduce changes in the handling of batteries and used batteries was initiated in 2020. The published legislative proposal [90] is designed to repeal and replace the current Directive 2006/66/EC by Regulation. It is worth noting that in the EU legal order, a regulation and a directive have different legal meanings. A regulation has general application and is directly applicable to all EU members. A directive is binding on each EU member to which it is addressed, leaving the national authorities free to choose the forms and means as to the result.

The draft regulation is one of the instruments for implementing the European Green Deal. The target recycling efficiency for portable lithium batteries is scheduled to reach 65% by 2025 and 70% by 2030 (by weight). The regulation also proposes recovery levels of raw materials at all recycling levels: 35% by 2026 and 70% by 2030 for lithium. According to the current directive, the recycling rates of materials from waste batteries and accumulators is assumed at 50% by weight. The regulation establishes extended producer responsibility for batteries that are supplied in a Member State for the first time. It entails a requirement for producers of batteries to ensure the attainment of the waste management obligations. The regulation also defines the waste status and the requirements for repurposed (second-life) batteries and the regeneration of industrial batteries and EV batteries (second-life cycle).

####  4.2. Recycling

Waste vehicles and EV batteries pose a serious threat to the natural environment and are a valuable source of various metals, including rare earth metals [91]. The recycling of electronics classified as waste has become essential for environmental reasons. To recycle BEVs, PHEVs, and HEVs and more sustainably use scarce resources, it is necessary to dismantle electronic and electrical components, which are then redirected for further use or material recovery [84]. By recycling materials used in batteries and accumulators, the EU can become less dependent on the imports of raw materials in the future. Moreover, approximately 70% of the world’s lithium deposits are located in South America (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile). Geopolitical instability in this area may affect the supply conditions and the price of batteries and, consequently, the production costs and the final price of electric vehicles [92]. The exploitation of scarce and hard-to-reach resources will affect the cost of battery production and increase the environmental footprint, which makes the recycling of electric car batteries even more important [93]. Lithium-ion batteries are most commonly used in BEVs and PHEVs, while nickel–metal hydride (Ni-MH) batteries are commonly used in HEVs [94]. Table 1 lists examples of battery recycling processes. 

As shown in Table 1, the recycling process for the two types of batteries considered involves not only relatively simple (e.g., sorting) but also complex activities, which may need to be performed under special conditions.

The recycling of LIBs is primarily designed to recover elements contained in the active electrode materials, i.e., lithium, cobalt, graphite, nickel, and manganese [95]. A detailed review of LIBs recycling processes is presented in the literature [83,96].

The recycling process involves pre-treatment to make battery recycling more efficient and to reduce energy consumption downstream. Laboratory-scale pre-treatment typically involves battery discharge (24 h bath in, e.g., distilled water), dismantling (usually manually), and separation [83]. Pre-treatment at the industrial scale typically includes discharge (same as laboratory-scale pre-treatment), dismantling (manual or mechanical), dry or wet grinding and crushing in a protective atmosphere (this is necessary for, e.g., hydrometallurgical recycling), classification (the size of fractions obtained reflects the content of materials eligible for recovery), separation (size-dependent fraction separation), dissolution (of active materials that still remain attached to the current collectors), and thermal treatment, e.g., vacuum pyrolysis. Thermal processing can be skipped or applied before or after mechanical methods as there are many approaches to mechanical pre-treatment in LIBs recycling. It is worth noting that recycled batteries are not flammable during vacuum pyrolysis and can be safely processed mechanically without the risk of fire [83]. The products of pre-treatment are partly separated metals, plastics, and black mass. In some of the pre-treatment processes, electrolytes can also be recovered from batteries [97]. Electrolyte recovery is a novelty in the recycling process. Example of black mass composition (% by weight) [98]:

  * Lithium compounds: 2–6%;

  * Cobalt: 5–20%;

  * Nickel: 5–15%;

  * Copper: 3–10%;

  * Aluminum: 1–5%;

  * Iron: 1–5%;

  * Manganese: 2–10%;

  * Residue: graphite with flakes of iron, aluminum, and copper.




Black mass is industrially processed using pyrometallurgical and/or hydrometallurgical methods [81,82,83]. A high-temperature furnace is used for the pyrometallurgical recycling process to reduce and refine valuable metals. Roasting, calcination, and smelting are the most common techniques used for pyrometallurgy [83]. Battery components decompose at high temperatures (usually up to 1400 °C). This method is designed to separate and collect precious metals, mainly cobalt, nickel, and copper, using thermodynamic reactions [99]. In conditions of high temperature, organic solvents contained in the batteries, lithium and fluoride, evaporate and are not recovered [100]. Hydrometallurgy recycling involves physical and chemical operations in liquid media. The recycling of batteries by pyrometallurgy may include the following steps: leaching (dissolving or leaching metals with an alkaline or acidic agent); removal of impurities (clarification of the leaching solution); and the recovery of nickel, cobalt, manganese, and lithium [83]. Metals dissolved in a liquid solution can then be precipitated individually, usually as salts, which requires additional chemical treatment to obtain the correct composition before they can be reused in batteries [99]. Electrochemical (electrohydrometallurgical) methods can also be used to recover valuable metals from LIBs [99]. The selective extraction and recovery of high-purity metals is carried out by electroplating using a leaching solution containing dissolved metals. The electro-hydrometallurgy reduces the pollution of water used in recycling processes.

The disadvantage of the current metallurgical processes is the environmental impact, i.e., the emission of toxins into the air or a significant amount of sewage generated [83]. The advantages and disadvantages of both mainstream industrial methods are compared in Table 2. The comparison presents the advantages and disadvantages of LiBs recycling methods most frequently found in the literature. Common names for LiBs recycling mainly refer to the names of the companies that use them. Selected LIBs recycling companies and the methods they use are listed in Table 3.

As can be seen from Table 2, where the battery recycling methods are compared, hydrometallurgical processing is the most widely used. A key benefit of this approach is the high effectiveness of the process, high purity of the recycled materials, relatively low energy consumption, and non-toxic emissions. The data in Table 3 showing the global LIB recycling leaders and the methods they use reveal an increase in the popularity of hydrometallurgical processing.

Direct recycling is a new method of recycling, which is currently performed at the laboratory scale. The recycling process consists of multiple physical and chemical steps characterized by low energy consumption [81,99]. In this method, the cathode needs to be carefully separated from the rest of the battery, which usually requires manual work due to variations in the design of batteries. For recycling to be effective, an individual approach needs to be employed to cater to the diversity of battery structures and chemical compositions. Biological technologies using microorganisms also raise high hopes as a new exciting recycling method [81]. 

The above considerations indicate that only part of the materials can be recycled irrespective of which battery recycling method is used. EV batteries are characterized by a complex structure, which contains materials with supplies that are or may be at risk in the near future (as they may receive a status of CRMs, i.e., Critical Raw Materials). For that reason, it is necessary to improve the technology which is going to allow us to obtain the largest possible share of materials through recycling used batteries. In the near future, it seems that recycling companies may become important partners in the automotive sector. Replacing vehicles driven by internal combustion engines with EVs is going to require the development of efficient recycling processes for the purpose of ensuring the recovery of exhaustible minerals. Considering the varying structure and chemical composition of EV batteries, it is also necessary to normalize and standardize the batteries used in electric vehicles in the near future. This, on the other hand, brings forth another question: are vehicle manufacturers prepared to cooperate in this specific area and should lawmakers initiate them?

####  4.3. The Second Life of a Battery

According to [100], the second life of a product is any action aimed at reusing products or its components that are not waste for any other purpose than the first use. This is the overarching goal of the circular economy as it allows the maintenance of the value of products while minimizing the generation of waste. In the EU, the priorities for products are in descending order of priority:

  * Extending the product’s service life;

  * Avoiding waste generation;

  * Re-use and second life;

  * Recycling.




According to [100], before deciding to send the batteries to recycling, the EV batteries are subject to a diagnosis. The diagnosis determines if the batteries’ operational life can be extended and if it is appropriate a waste-prevention measure. There are many prospective applications for battery reuse, including applications related to the use of batteries for electricity storage ranging from residential purposes to applications for urban electro-mobility [93]. To address the issue of a growing number of electric vehicle models and batteries, automakers may be designing their EVs with second-life applications in mind, as the supply of second-life batteries for stationary applications is projected to exceed 200 GW hours per year by 2030 [101].

The United States Advanced Battery Consortium (USABC) tests operated by the US Council for Automotive Research (USCAR) are one way to determine the service life of batteries used in BEVs. The USABC was established in 1991 to promote the research and development of electrochemical energy storage systems. USABC regulatory documents specify the end of life (EoL) of a battery if the following criteria are met [102,103]: (1) the delivered batteries (module, cells) retain less than 80% of their original capacity, (2) the maximum peak power is less than 80% of the rated power at 80% depth of discharge. A dynamic stress test (DST) is used to test for compliance with the first criterion, and the battery power in the second criterion is determined using the peak power test.

The following factors have a direct impact on battery aging: operating temperature, depth of discharge (DoD), discharge rate (C-rate), state of charge (SoC), and time. Increasing the battery capacity will improve the battery service life and the battery cycles will have a lower DoD; the lower the C-rate, the longer the service life and the lower the operating temperature [104]. In most cases, large capacity batteries are not required for EVs to support the current driving routines, i.e., the average battery capacity exceeds (about 10 times) total daily energy use in battery-powered electric passenger cars, which translates in an ineffective use of resources for battery construction [104]. 

Battery aging, manifested by a decrease in its capacity and power, is one of the key challenges in LIBs [97]. The first modern electric vehicles had a driving range of up to approx. 100 km and batteries with a capacity of 16–24 kWh. Manufacturers were concerned about battery aging and the inability to meet customer transport requirements, and they set the EoL for these batteries at around 80% [97]. Meanwhile, the capacity of batteries used in vehicles has changed with the growing number of electric cars produced. Initially, the battery capacity was 16 kWh and 24 kWh. With decreasing production costs, new vehicles driving on roads were fitted with batteries with a capacity of 30, 40, 70, and 90 kWh [104].

So, should the 80% criterion be obligatorily applied to LiBs? The decision on battery EoL rests solely with the vehicle user and should take into account the vehicle’s maintenance and driving routines. There are two approaches to using battery systems for grid applications [82]:

  * Stationary storage applications of second-life batteries (electricity storage);

  * Vehicle-to-grid (V2G), in which a battery remains in the vehicle and is used for energy storage to be returned to the grid.




Stationary second-life applications of EV batteries can be divided into two groups [93]: integration with the national energy grid (e.g., for seasonal energy storage and distribution, integration with renewable energy sources, grid regulation), and end-user-oriented applications (e.g., energy management, transport solutions, integration with distributed solutions using renewable energy sources in various areas, e.g., construction, services, residential) [93]. Rechargeable battery systems are recognized as one of the most promising solutions for generating electricity from renewable energy sources [82], which presents a potential opportunity to reuse withdrawn batteries that were used to power electric vehicles. To meet the energy requirements, more than one battery from an electric vehicle will be required in most cases, and their heterogeneity is a drawback. Problems with the collection and second life of batteries in mobile and stationary energy storage applications can be traced to the high diversity (heterogeneity) of battery models, forms, chemical compositions, electrical properties, and state of health (SoH) [93,104].

The specificity of battery reuse depends on the rate and reason (e.g., aging, accident) of phasing out electric vehicles and is independent of the decision maker who changes the original purpose of the battery [93]. Once retired, most EV batteries will have a SoH higher than 75% over the next 20 years, which opens up a market for companies to give EV batteries a second life. However, battery reuse is an option that, given the growing market of electric vehicles, will quickly cater to the demand for stationary energy storage [104]. 

The second life of EV batteries can evolve in the following directions [93,105]:

  * Direct reuse—lower costs, no or little adaptability to connect to other batteries;

  * Battery dismantling to the module level—versatile reuse options; a new battery management system (BMS) and control systems need to be used;

  * Battery dismantling to the cell level—most often implemented by regeneration companies, high versatility of applications, high costs (more labor-intensive processes), selection of cells depending on their SoH.




In the EV battery reuse model, batteries are collected after the end of their first life, at which point the first selection takes place (Figure 4) [98]. Damaged batteries are recycled, while the remaining ones are handed over to regeneration plants, where they are tested to determine their SoH. Batteries with an SoH above 88% can be directly reused again as spare parts in their original application. Batteries with an SoH of 75–88% are suitable to be repurposed for stationary energy storage applications or other transportation services with lower power requirements and demands on the battery performance (power source for hybrid trucks in urban driving). Batteries with an SoH below 75% can be dismantled into modules or cells for repurposing in less demanding applications, for example as a power source for portable computers, mobile systems to help people (e.g., cleaning robots), electric vehicles with low requirements (e.g., electric bicycles, golf vehicles, forklifts). Possible applications for EV battery second life are presented in Figure 5.

Examples of EV batteries second-life applications:

  * 13 MWh energy storage installed at a recycling facility in Lünen (Germany) [107,108,109]—in 2015, Daimler AG, The Mobility House, GETEC, and REMONDIS started the 13 MWh battery storage project. The stationary storage unit is composed of over 1000 used batteries from electric vehicles The installation is the demonstrator of potential secondary use.

  * Nissan Leaf batteries used for commercial distributed stationary energy storage systems [101,110,111,112]—in 2010; Nissan in cooperation with Sumitomo Corporation established 4R ENERGY Corporation (joint venture) to reuse battery packs from the Nissan Leaf for stationary storage systems. According to the companies, the second life of batteries is aimed at increasing sustainability and is referred to as “4R business” (Reuse, Refabricate, Resell, Recycle). In 2015, Nissan Motor Company and Green Charge Networks (commercial energy storage systems supplier) collaborated to implement commercial energy storage using second-life Nissan Leaf batteries. The first unit of this type was installed at a Nissan supplier to meet peak electricity demand.

  * BMW and MINI batteries as mobile power units [113,114]—in 2020, BMW Group UK announced a cooperation with Off-Grid Energy. Retired BMW and MNI batteries, which can no longer efficiently be used in EVs, were adapted to create mobile power units. The first prototype unit has a 40 kWh capacity with a 7.2 kW fast charge.

  * Chevrolet Volt batteries used as energy storage for lighting used at the GM’s Enterprise Data Center [115]—in 2015, GM released news about the retired Chevrolet Volt batteries provided electricity to help keep light in the building. The second-life battery application was included in the grid of renewable energy sources (two 2 kW wind turbines and a 74 kW solar array).

  * Stationary energy storage based on Renault vehicle batteries [102,116]—in 2018, the Renault Group announced the launch of the stationary energy battery storage project called Advanced Battery Storage. The project is based on retired Renault Group electric vehicle batteries. The stationary energy battery storage acts as a buffer to help manage the discrepancy between the supply and demand of electric energy. The project is set to be deployed in Europe to reach a capacity of 70 MWh.

  * Stationary energy storage based on Kia vehicle batteries [117]—automaker Kia and Deutsche Bahn (Germany’s rail and logistics company) have partnered to use retired Kia EV batteries to create efficient and cost-effective energy storage systems. The developed energy storage units are modular and can be used in many different applications, e.g., collecting surplus electricity from photovoltaic systems or, as part of a distributed system, supplying energy throughout the day to Deutsche Bahn depots where trains are prepared for operation. The first pilot project was launched at the EUREF Berlin campus in July 2022.

  * The energy storage at EV recharging stations and buildings based on Volvo vehicle batteries [118]—Volvo Buses, in cooperation with Stena Property and BatteryLoop, have developed energy storage systems based on retired bus batteries used in charging stations and residential buildings. Batteries are used to store renewable energy for residential complexes, e.g., Fyrklövern in Gothenburg.

  * Nissan Leaf batteries used for energy storage at Amsterdam ArenA [118]—the energy storage with a capacity of 4 MWh is used to provide appropriate support in crisis situations when events are taking place at the stadium. The storage is powered by renewable energy sources. Previously, diesel generators were used for this purpose.

  * BMW i3 batteries as energy storage for renewable energy sources at the manufacturing site where this model is produced [118].




In [119], the following three main factors were identified to determine a battery’s second life: battery ownership, cross-industry partnerships, and government support. The factors were identified based on research conducted covering innovative business models of various stakeholders of the electric vehicle industry (electric car manufacturer, recycling company, charging infrastructure supplier, and joint venture company dealing with the second use of batteries). There is an important prerequisite for second-life business models: Who is responsible for the EoL of EV batteries? Clear global regulations regarding liability for retired EV batteries will initiate large-scale second-life solutions. Moreover, reusing retired EV batteries for secondary uses delays their recycling phase. Extending battery life also helps reduce waste and resource exploitation. Solutions for reusing used EV batteries therefore become a link between the energy sector. The profitability of second-life solutions in the energy sector is determined, among others, by regulations regarding the range of energy prices during peak hours. The lack of a range of energy prices during peak hours may limit the economic viability of second-life solutions. Start-up FreeWire Technology introduces an innovative business model for charging services that provides the first solution combining electric vehicle charging with grid-level energy management by creating a network of grid-adapted mobile electric vehicle chargers. The start-up uses used Nissan Leaf batteries supplied by 4R Energy (joint venture, industry partnerships between Nissan and Sumitomo). The second use of batteries is therefore a catalyst for innovation in business models.

From the point of view of a company (e.g., supplier of energy storage solutions, EV manufacturer), the second life of retired EV batteries makes sense if it allows reducing costs and extend the battery life. In [106], four business model scenarios were analyzed taking into account the principles of the circular economy:

  * No. 1—production and use of batteries in the vehicle and recycling of used batteries—Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) uses non-standard batteries (not regulated by external regulations). Used batteries after their first life are collected by dismantlers (cooperating with the OEM) and sent for recycling.

  * No. 2—production and use of batteries in the vehicle and improved recycling—the recycler collects batteries from workshops or dismantling points. The recycling company uses an automated process to handle large volumes of used batteries.

  * No. 3—production and use of batteries in a vehicle, repair and reuse in a vehicle, and recycling—after their first life, batteries are subjected to diagnostics (by the workshop worker) or dismantling to assess their condition and the possibility of reuse. In cooperation with the OEM, the battery is regenerated or repaired and then used in the same or other vehicle (with lower requirements). Batteries that cannot be repaired are sent for recycling.

  * No. 4—production and the use of batteries in a vehicle, repair, and reuse in various applications, and recycling—after removing the battery from the vehicle, it is assessed in terms of condition and the possibility of its reuse. Unlike model no. 3, early diagnostics allows you to determine second-life applications, which allows you to reduce maintenance and transportation costs because the reclaimed battery goes to the right place.




Model No. 1 is mainly aimed at optimizing the profits of OEM and EV manufacturers without taking actions aimed at the second life of the battery. Model No. 2 is burdened with uncertainty due to the unknown structure and chemical composition of future EV batteries. Model No. 3 may be used in the vehicle segment whose customers are fleet operators. Model No. 4 requires close cooperation throughout the entire chain.

Government support is important for second-life applications. The problem has been noticed in the EU, and regulation [90] will specify the extended manufacturer liability for batteries delivered in member countries for the first time. Extended producer responsibility includes a requirement for battery manufacturers to ensure that waste management obligations are met. The regulation will also specify when a battery will have the status of waste and requirements related to the use for other purposes and regeneration of industrial batteries and electric vehicle batteries (second life cycle).

Decommissioned batteries used in electric vehicles which no longer meet the requirements for their original use can be successfully used in less demanding applications, as presented above. The lack of legal regulations and requirements for extending the lifespan of used EV batteries means that they are treated as waste to be recycled. The current trends in the development of the battery recycling sector show that they have a chance to become an important element within the energy sector (for instance, energy storage) in the years to come. The transport industry solutions in less demanding applications, such as bicycles and electric motorcycles, are still underestimated. Such scenarios for the life cycle of an EV battery requires solutions at the design stage that are going to allow for both the first- and second-life applications of the product. It is also worth noting that postponing recycling allows for the development of more efficient recovery methods of CRMs.

##  5\. Conclusions

The continuing growth in popularity of EVs in all countries of the world and the reported future restriction of registration of combustion engine vehicles in EU countries means that EVs are now being considered as the main mode of propulsion in vehicles of the near future. The various financial incentives and subsidies applied by countries to facilitate the purchase of electric cars are stimulating the growth of EV sales and contributing to an increased share of EVs in the automotive market. A significant portion of the literature is about the indisputable advantages of electric propulsion. However, considering the site of operation and local conditions, it is possible to identify certain problems that may arise during their use and that need to be resolved in the near future.

Considering the widely reported advantages of EVs, the paper aimed to discuss aspects related to the production, use, and decommissioning of EVs. The critical analysis of EVs presented in this article aimed to answer four questions: Are EVs environmentally friendly over their entire life cycle? Can EVs be considered zero-emission vehicles? Can maximum efficiency be achieved while reclaiming the critical raw materials (CRMs) from spent EV batteries? Will solutions like ‘second-life batteries’ reduce the negative impact of EVs on the environment? From a review of the research literature on the subject, it can be concluded that over their whole life cycle, EVs, just like ICEVs, have a negative impact on the environment mainly because of their reliance on critical raw materials and the production of GHGs, causing harm to living organisms. Unlike conventional vehicles, EVs have a negative impact on the environment not only during the extraction of raw materials but also at the vehicle production, use, and recycling stages. The most problematic is the production and disposal of the components of the electric transmission system, particularly lithium-ion batteries.

The work is divided into two parts, which include a discussion of both the benefits but also some of the risks of using these vehicles. This first part identifies the environmental issues associated with the entire life cycle of an EV. An electric vehicle and battery recycling system are also presented. Electric vehicles are now one of the proposed solutions aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in transport as a global effect.

The main question we were guided by when writing this paper is: is an electric car fully ecological? The answer to this question is not obvious. Therefore, in order to fully assess the environmental friendliness of EVs, the entire life cycle of the car was analyzed. An attempt to identify the main threats related to the use of EVs may constitute the basis for taking actions aimed at eliminating them.

The share of individual sources in electricity production in EU countries (energy mix) is also discussed. Unfortunately, at the stage of use, the level of ecology of EV vehicles is directly dependent on the method of obtaining electrical energy, and therefore in countries where energy produced is obtained from fossil sources, it is still difficult to achieve high reduction in emissions. Unfortunately, this can mean that the combined environmental performance ratings of an electric vehicle may not be as ‘ideal’. Activities of many countries aimed at accelerating energy transformation are an opportunity for increasing the share of EVs and reducing the ecological costs of their use. From this aspect, the article demonstrates the vital importance of the manner in which electricity is generated/sourced and the use of renewable (‘clean’) energy sources in both the production and operation phases of EVs. In terms of, ‘green energy,’ there is great variation between countries because energy is obtained from a variety of sources. In the European Union, the energy mix is dominated on average by renewable energy—49% and nuclear energy—31.3%. However, due to their location and local conditions of the countries, these sources vary greatly. For instance, Malta and Iceland have 100% renewable energy sources; on the other hand, fossil fuels such as coal are mainly used by Poland (71.5%), Estonia (55.9%), or the Czech Republic (44.5%), while natural gas is mostly used in the Netherlands (58.4%). The analyses of the energy mix of EU countries lead to the conclusion that in countries that predominantly use fossil fuels for energy production, the electric vehicle cannot be considered as completely emission-free. 

Based on the literature analysis carried out, it can be concluded that electric drive technology in vehicles requires further development. Although electric vehicles do not emit greenhouse gases while in operation, they display high emissions in both the production and recycling stages and require significant energy input.

The important conclusion of this review is the need to change and improve the entire life cycle of an electric vehicle. The design stage makes for an important consideration, as the materials and raw materials selected should be recyclable to the greatest extent possible and later reused. In addition, the rare minerals and earth elements used constitute a need to adopt an appropriate system for their acquisition and distribution. Energy input is still required in the EV production phase. Only using more renewable energy sources will reduce the carbon footprint and GHG emissions, because EV production requires more energy than ICEV. That is due to the highly energy-intensive processes of extraction and processing of the materials used to manufacture the drive components and batteries. 

On the other hand, during the use phase, electric vehicles show significantly lower GHG emissions when compared to ICEVs. At the point of use, EVs do not emit compounds and are therefore referred to as ‘non-emitting.’ However, mains electricity is used when charging the battery. However, when charging the EV battery, the energy from the energy networks is used.

Recycling batteries and their second life is also an important environmental issue. The possibility of reusing materials that are also ‘costly’ in ecological terms, and the ongoing development of recycling technologies and methods in this area, raises hopes. In this specific issue, directives adopted by the EU imposing mass recovery and recycling rates for end-of-life vehicle waste prove to be particularly helpful. The overview of battery reusability provided in the article depends on the degree of battery wear and the reason (e.g., accident) for the EV recall. It is estimated that most of the batteries from the recalled EVs will have an SoH (state of health) rating over 75%, making it a great opportunity for reuse. 

The continuous increase EVs in the vehicle stock is a challenge for the LiBs recycling sector and the opportunity to obtain low-cost energy storage in second-life LiBs applications. It is expected that the recycling of LiBs and their second life will be an important direction for further research in the near future. Existing industrial recycling methods do not allow lithium recovery, the resources of which will be exhausted in the future. Limited resources of rare earth metals can increase the production price of new LiBs and the sales price of EVs. The use of direct recycling on an industrial scale is an important direction for further research and offers great opportunities in the recycling of LiBs. An incorrect approach to batteries after the first life and the lack of a rational SoH assessment (taking into account, e.g., daily routines) in the near future may lead to an irrational management of used LiBs, which will be recycled (necessity of energy consumption) or stored (exposure to leaks or fire—additional environmental hazard). The overview of battery reusability provided for in the article depends on the degree of battery wear and the reason (e.g., accident) for the EV recall. The unification of LiBs (chemical composition, dimensions) used by EV manufacturers is an important challenge, which may consequently help in the development of second-life applications. Meeting this challenge is difficult as vehicle manufacturers strive to develop new LiBs with better performance characteristics. Taking into account the market competitiveness of vehicle manufacturers, we should expect the production of new batteries with a different chemical composition even without the use of lithium.

The authors have chosen to concentrate on the EU because of regional considerations influenced by specific challenges and developments in the context of electric vehicles. Beyond the EU, major contributors to the production of EVs and electric drive components include China, Japan, and the USA. Evaluating the environmental impact of EVs in different countries necessitates a comprehensive analysis spanning the entire vehicle life cycle. Regional disparities in energy sources, manufacturing processes, and governmental policies significantly influence the overall sustainability of electric mobility in each country [120,121,122,123]. A pivotal factor in this assessment is the environmental impact of battery production. The sustainable manufacturing and recycling of batteries are paramount in mitigating the overall environmental footprint of EVs. China’s prominence as a key player in battery manufacturing underscores the critical importance of adopting sustainable production practices.

This part largely summarizes the environmental aspects associated with the life cycle of an electric vehicle. Part 2 of this article presents infrastructure issues, mainly the availability of charging stations, affecting the so-called range anxiety, and safety of use including fire hazards. 

## Author Contributions

Conceptualization, methodology, validation, formal analysis, investigation. writing—original draft preparation, writing—review and editing, visualization—M.G., J.J., R.S.J., E.M.S., P.Z. and M.Ż. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

## Funding

This research received no external funding.

## Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

## Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

## References

  1. Zieliński, A. Samochody Osobowe. Dzieje Rozwoju; WKŁ: Warsaw, Poland, 2009. (In Polish) [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Samochody+Osobowe.+Dzieje+Rozwoju&author=Zieli%C5%84ski,+A.&publication_year=2009)]
  2. Zhou, J.; Feng, C.; Su, Q.; Jiang, S.; Fan, Z.; Ruan, J.; Sun, S.; Hu, L. The Multi-Objective Optimization of Powertrain Design and Energy Management Strategy for Fuel Cell-Battery Electric Vehicle. Sustainability **2022** , 14, 6320. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+Multi-Objective+Optimization+of+Powertrain+Design+and+Energy+Management+Strategy+for+Fuel+Cell-Battery+Electric+Vehicle&author=Zhou,+J.&author=Feng,+C.&author=Su,+Q.&author=Jiang,+S.&author=Fan,+Z.&author=Ruan,+J.&author=Sun,+S.&author=Hu,+L.&publication_year=2022&journal=Sustainability&volume=14&pages=6320&doi=10.3390/su14106320)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106320)]
  3. Jia, C.; Zhou, J.; He, H.; Li, J.; Wei, Z.; Li, K.; Shi, M. A novel energy management strategy for hybrid electric bus with fuel cell health and battery thermal-and health-constrained awareness. Energy **2023** , 271, 127105. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=A+novel+energy+management+strategy+for+hybrid+electric+bus+with+fuel+cell+health+and+battery+thermal-and+health-constrained+awareness&author=Jia,+C.&author=Zhou,+J.&author=He,+H.&author=Li,+J.&author=Wei,+Z.&author=Li,+K.&author=Shi,+M.&publication_year=2023&journal=Energy&volume=271&pages=127105&doi=10.1016/j.energy.2023.127105)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.127105)]
  4. Jia, C.; Li, K.; He, H.; Zhou, J.; Li, J.; Wei, Z. Health-aware energy management strategy for fuel cell hybrid bus considering air-conditioning control based on TD3 algorithm. Energy **2023** , 283, 128462. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Health-aware+energy+management+strategy+for+fuel+cell+hybrid+bus+considering+air-conditioning+control+based+on+TD3+algorithm&author=Jia,+C.&author=Li,+K.&author=He,+H.&author=Zhou,+J.&author=Li,+J.&author=Wei,+Z.&publication_year=2023&journal=Energy&volume=283&pages=128462&doi=10.1016/j.energy.2023.128462)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.128462)]
  5. Szumska, E.; Jurecki, R.; Pawełczyk, M. Evaluation of the use of hybrid electric powertrain system in urban traffic conditions. Eksploat. I Niezawodn.—Maint. Reliab. **2020** , 22, 154–160. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Evaluation+of+the+use+of+hybrid+electric+powertrain+system+in+urban+traffic+conditions&author=Szumska,+E.&author=Jurecki,+R.&author=Pawe%C5%82czyk,+M.&publication_year=2020&journal=Eksploat.+I+Niezawodn.%E2%80%94Maint.+Reliab.&volume=22&pages=154%E2%80%93160&doi=10.17531/ein.2020.1.18)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.17531/ein.2020.1.18)]
  6. Szumska, E.M.; Jurecki, R. The Analysis of Energy Recovered during the Braking of an Electric Vehicle in Different Driving Conditions. Energies **2022** , 15, 9369. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+Analysis+of+Energy+Recovered+during+the+Braking+of+an+Electric+Vehicle+in+Different+Driving+Conditions&author=Szumska,+E.M.&author=Jurecki,+R.&publication_year=2022&journal=Energies&volume=15&pages=9369&doi=10.3390/en15249369)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.3390/en15249369)]
  7. ISO 14040:2006; Environmental Management—Life Cycle Assessment—Principles and Framework. ISO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2006.
  8. Hauschild, M.Z.; Rosenbaum, R.K.; Olsen, S.I. Life Cycle Assessment; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2018. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Life+Cycle+Assessment&author=Hauschild,+M.Z.&author=Rosenbaum,+R.K.&author=Olsen,+S.I.&publication_year=2018)]
  9. ISO 14044:2006; Environmental Management Life Cycle Assessment Requirements and Guidelines. ISO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2006.
  10. Farzaneh, F.; Jung, S. Lifecycle carbon footprint comparison between internal combustion engine versus electric transit vehicle: A case study in the US. J. Clean. Prod. **2023** , 390, 136111. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Lifecycle+carbon+footprint+comparison+between+internal+combustion+engine+versus+electric+transit+vehicle:+A+case+study+in+the+US&author=Farzaneh,+F.&author=Jung,+S.&publication_year=2023&journal=J.+Clean.+Prod.&volume=390&pages=136111&doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.136111)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.136111)]
  11. Hung, C.R.; Völler, S.; Agez, M.; Majeau-Bettez, G.; Strømman, A.H. Regionalized climate footprints of battery electric vehicles in Europe. J. Clean. Prod. **2021** , 322, 129052. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Regionalized+climate+footprints+of+battery+electric+vehicles+in+Europe&author=Hung,+C.R.&author=V%C3%B6ller,+S.&author=Agez,+M.&author=Majeau-Bettez,+G.&author=Str%C3%B8mman,+A.H.&publication_year=2021&journal=J.+Clean.+Prod.&volume=322&pages=129052&doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.129052)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.129052)]
  12. Morfeldt, J.; Kurland, S.D.; Johansson, D.J. Carbon footprint impacts of banning cars with internal combustion engines. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. **2021** , 95, 102807. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Carbon+footprint+impacts+of+banning+cars+with+internal+combustion+engines&author=Morfeldt,+J.&author=Kurland,+S.D.&author=Johansson,+D.J.&publication_year=2021&journal=Transp.+Res.+Part+D+Transp.+Environ.&volume=95&pages=102807&doi=10.1016/j.trd.2021.102807)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2021.102807)]
  13. Neugebauer, M.; Żebrowski, A.; Esmer, O. Cumulative Emissions of CO2 for Electric and Combustion Cars: A Case Study on Specific Models. Energies **2022** , 15, 2703. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Cumulative+Emissions+of+CO2+for+Electric+and+Combustion+Cars:+A+Case+Study+on+Specific+Models&author=Neugebauer,+M.&author=%C5%BBebrowski,+A.&author=Esmer,+O.&publication_year=2022&journal=Energies&volume=15&pages=2703&doi=10.3390/en15072703)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.3390/en15072703)]
  14. Qiao, Q.; Zhao, F.; Liu, Z.; Jiang, S.; Hao, H. Comparative study on life cycle CO2 emissions from the production of electric and conventional vehicles in China. Energy Procedia **2017** , 105, 3584–3595. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Comparative+study+on+life+cycle+CO2+emissions+from+the+production+of+electric+and+conventional+vehicles+in+China&author=Qiao,+Q.&author=Zhao,+F.&author=Liu,+Z.&author=Jiang,+S.&author=Hao,+H.&publication_year=2017&journal=Energy+Procedia&volume=105&pages=3584%E2%80%933595&doi=10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.827)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.827)]
  15. Gan, Y.; Lu, Z.; Wu, Q.; He, X.; Dai, Q.; Kelly, J.C.; Anhathi, S.K.; Wang, M. Cradle-to-grave mercury emissions of light-duty gasoline and electric vehicles in China. Resources Conserv. Recycl. **2023** , 190, 106736. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Cradle-to-grave+mercury+emissions+of+light-duty+gasoline+and+electric+vehicles+in+China&author=Gan,+Y.&author=Lu,+Z.&author=Wu,+Q.&author=He,+X.&author=Dai,+Q.&author=Kelly,+J.C.&author=Anhathi,+S.K.&author=Wang,+M.&publication_year=2023&journal=Resources+Conserv.+Recycl.&volume=190&pages=106736&doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106736)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106736)]
  16. Hawkins, T.R.; Singh, B.; Majeau-Bettez, G.; Strømman, A.H. Comparative environmental life cycle assessment of conventional and electric vehicles. J. Ind. Ecol. **2013** , 17, 53–64. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Comparative+environmental+life+cycle+assessment+of+conventional+and+electric+vehicles&author=Hawkins,+T.R.&author=Singh,+B.&author=Majeau-Bettez,+G.&author=Str%C3%B8mman,+A.H.&publication_year=2013&journal=J.+Ind.+Ecol.&volume=17&pages=53%E2%80%9364&doi=10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00532.x)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00532.x)]
  17. Jones, B.; Elliott, R.J.; Nguyen-Tien, V. The EV revolution: The road ahead for critical raw materials demand. Appl. Energy **2020** , 280, 115072. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+EV+revolution:+The+road+ahead+for+critical+raw+materials+demand&author=Jones,+B.&author=Elliott,+R.J.&author=Nguyen-Tien,+V.&publication_year=2020&journal=Appl.+Energy&volume=280&pages=115072&doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115072&pmid=33052165)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115072)] [[PubMed](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33052165)]
  18. Jones, B.; Nguyen-Tien, V.; Elliott, R.J. The electric vehicle revolution: Critical material supply chains, trade and development. World Econ. **2023** , 46, 2–26. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+electric+vehicle+revolution:+Critical+material+supply+chains,+trade+and+development&author=Jones,+B.&author=Nguyen-Tien,+V.&author=Elliott,+R.J.&publication_year=2023&journal=World+Econ.&volume=46&pages=2%E2%80%9326&doi=10.1111/twec.13345)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1111/twec.13345)]
  19. The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions. Available online: <https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-critical-minerals-in-clean-energy-transitions> (accessed on 5 July 2023).
  20. Cimprich, A.; Bach, V.; Helbig, C.; Thorenz, A.; Schrijvers, D.; Sonnemann, G.; Young, S.B.; Sonderegger, T.; Berger, M. Raw material criticality assessment as a complement to environmental life cycle assessment: Examining methods for product-level supply risk assessment. J. Ind. Ecol. **2019** , 23, 226–1236. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Raw+material+criticality+assessment+as+a+complement+to+environmental+life+cycle+assessment:+Examining+methods+for+product-level+supply+risk+assessment&author=Cimprich,+A.&author=Bach,+V.&author=Helbig,+C.&author=Thorenz,+A.&author=Schrijvers,+D.&author=Sonnemann,+G.&author=Young,+S.B.&author=Sonderegger,+T.&author=Berger,+M.&publication_year=2019&journal=J.+Ind.+Ecol.&volume=23&pages=226%E2%80%931236&doi=10.1111/jiec.12865)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12865)]
  21. Hawkins, T.R.; Gausen, O.M.; Strømman, A.H. Environmental impacts of hybrid and electric vehicles—A review. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. **2012** , 17, 997–1014. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Environmental+impacts+of+hybrid+and+electric+vehicles%E2%80%94A+review&author=Hawkins,+T.R.&author=Gausen,+O.M.&author=Str%C3%B8mman,+A.H.&publication_year=2012&journal=Int.+J.+Life+Cycle+Assess.&volume=17&pages=997%E2%80%931014&doi=10.1007/s11367-012-0440-9)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-012-0440-9)]
  22. Nordelöf, A.; Messagie, M.; Tillman, A.M.; Ljunggren Söderman, M.; Van Mierlo, J. Environmental impacts of hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and battery electric vehicles—What can we learn from life cycle assessment? Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. **2014** , 19, 1866–1890. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Environmental+impacts+of+hybrid,+plug-in+hybrid,+and+battery+electric+vehicles%E2%80%94What+can+we+learn+from+life+cycle+assessment?&author=Nordel%C3%B6f,+A.&author=Messagie,+M.&author=Tillman,+A.M.&author=Ljunggren+S%C3%B6derman,+M.&author=Van+Mierlo,+J.&publication_year=2014&journal=Int.+J.+Life+Cycle+Assess.&volume=19&pages=1866%E2%80%931890&doi=10.1007/s11367-014-0788-0)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-014-0788-0)]
  23. Castro, M.B.G.; Remmerswaal, J.A.M.; Reuter, M.A. Life cycle impact assessment of the average passenger vehicle in the Netherlands. Int. J. LCA **2003** , 8, 297–304. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Life+cycle+impact+assessment+of+the+average+passenger+vehicle+in+the+Netherlands&author=Castro,+M.B.G.&author=Remmerswaal,+J.A.M.&author=Reuter,+M.A.&publication_year=2003&journal=Int.+J.+LCA&volume=8&pages=297%E2%80%93304&doi=10.1007/BF02978922)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02978922)]
  24. Faria, R.; Marques, P.; Moura, P.; Freire, F.; Delgado, J.; De Almeida, A.T. Impact of the electricity mix and use profile in the life-cycle assessment of electric vehicles. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. **2013** , 24, 271–287. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Impact+of+the+electricity+mix+and+use+profile+in+the+life-cycle+assessment+of+electric+vehicles&author=Faria,+R.&author=Marques,+P.&author=Moura,+P.&author=Freire,+F.&author=Delgado,+J.&author=De+Almeida,+A.T.&publication_year=2013&journal=Renew.+Sustain.+Energy+Rev.&volume=24&pages=271%E2%80%93287&doi=10.1016/j.rser.2013.03.063)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.03.063)]
  25. Shafique, M.; Azam, A.; Rafiq, M.; Luo, X. Life cycle assessment of electric vehicles and internal combustion engine vehicles: A case study of Hong Kong. Res. Transp. Econ. **2022** , 91, 101112. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Life+cycle+assessment+of+electric+vehicles+and+internal+combustion+engine+vehicles:+A+case+study+of+Hong+Kong&author=Shafique,+M.&author=Azam,+A.&author=Rafiq,+M.&author=Luo,+X.&publication_year=2022&journal=Res.+Transp.+Econ.&volume=91&pages=101112&doi=10.1016/j.retrec.2021.101112)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.retrec.2021.101112)]
  26. Yu, A.; Wei, Y.; Chen, W.; Peng, N.; Peng, L. Life cycle environmental impacts and carbon emissions: A case study of electric and gasoline vehicles in China. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. **2018** , 65, 409–420. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Life+cycle+environmental+impacts+and+carbon+emissions:+A+case+study+of+electric+and+gasoline+vehicles+in+China&author=Yu,+A.&author=Wei,+Y.&author=Chen,+W.&author=Peng,+N.&author=Peng,+L.&publication_year=2018&journal=Transp.+Res.+Part+D+Transp.+Environ.&volume=65&pages=409%E2%80%93420&doi=10.1016/j.trd.2018.09.009)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2018.09.009)]
  27. Held, M.; Schücking, M. Utilization effects on battery electric vehicle life-cycle assessment: A case-driven analysis of two commercial mobility applications. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. **2019** , 75, 87–105. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Utilization+effects+on+battery+electric+vehicle+life-cycle+assessment:+A+case-driven+analysis+of+two+commercial+mobility+applications&author=Held,+M.&author=Sch%C3%BCcking,+M.&publication_year=2019&journal=Transp.+Res.+Part+D+Transp.+Environ.&volume=75&pages=87%E2%80%93105&doi=10.1016/j.trd.2019.08.005)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2019.08.005)]
  28. Messagie, M.; Boureima, F.-S.; Coosemans, T.; Macharis, C.; Mierlo, J.V. A Range-Based Vehicle Life Cycle Assessment Incorporating Variability in the Environmental Assessment of Different Vehicle Technologies and Fuels. Energies **2014** , 7, 1467–1482. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=A+Range-Based+Vehicle+Life+Cycle+Assessment+Incorporating+Variability+in+the+Environmental+Assessment+of+Different+Vehicle+Technologies+and+Fuels&author=Messagie,+M.&author=Boureima,+F.-S.&author=Coosemans,+T.&author=Macharis,+C.&author=Mierlo,+J.V.&publication_year=2014&journal=Energies&volume=7&pages=1467%E2%80%931482&doi=10.3390/en7031467)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.3390/en7031467)]
  29. Yue, K. Comparative analysis of scrap car recycling management policies. Procedia Environ. Sci. **2012** , 16, 44–50. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Comparative+analysis+of+scrap+car+recycling+management+policies&author=Yue,+K.&publication_year=2012&journal=Procedia+Environ.+Sci.&volume=16&pages=44%E2%80%9350&doi=10.1016/j.proenv.2012.10.007)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2012.10.007)]
  30. Nakano, K.; Shibahara, N. Comparative assessment on greenhouse gas emissions of end-of-life vehicles recycling methods. J. Mater. Cycles Waste **2017** , 19, 505–515. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Comparative+assessment+on+greenhouse+gas+emissions+of+end-of-life+vehicles+recycling+methods&author=Nakano,+K.&author=Shibahara,+N.&publication_year=2017&journal=J.+Mater.+Cycles+Waste&volume=19&pages=505%E2%80%93515&doi=10.1007/s10163-015-0454-z)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-015-0454-z)]
  31. Venkatesan, M.; Baskaran, R. An Inclusive and Effective End-of-Life Vehicle Recycling System in India: Balancing Economy and Ecology from Grave to Cradle. Iran. J. Chem. Chem. Eng. **2022** , 41, 1501–1511. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=An+Inclusive+and+Effective+End-of-Life+Vehicle+Recycling+System+in+India:+Balancing+Economy+and+Ecology+from+Grave+to+Cradle&author=Venkatesan,+M.&author=Baskaran,+R.&publication_year=2022&journal=Iran.+J.+Chem.+Chem.+Eng.&volume=41&pages=1501%E2%80%931511)]
  32. Ferrao, P.; Amaral, J. Assessing the economics of auto recycling activities in relation to European Union Directive on end of life vehicles. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang. **2006** , 73, 277–289. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Assessing+the+economics+of+auto+recycling+activities+in+relation+to+European+Union+Directive+on+end+of+life+vehicles&author=Ferrao,+P.&author=Amaral,+J.&publication_year=2006&journal=Technol.+Forecast.+Soc.+Chang.&volume=73&pages=277%E2%80%93289&doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2004.03.010)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2004.03.010)]
  33. Fleischer, J.; Gerlitz, E.; Ries, S.; Coutandin, S.; Hofmann, J. Concepts and requirements for flexible disassembly systems for drive train components of electric vehicles. Procedia CIRP **2021** , 98, 577–582. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Concepts+and+requirements+for+flexible+disassembly+systems+for+drive+train+components+of+electric+vehicles&author=Fleischer,+J.&author=Gerlitz,+E.&author=Ries,+S.&author=Coutandin,+S.&author=Hofmann,+J.&publication_year=2021&journal=Procedia+CIRP&volume=98&pages=577%E2%80%93582&doi=10.1016/j.procir.2021.01.154)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2021.01.154)]
  34. Meng, K.; Xu, G.; Peng, X.; Youcef-Toumi, K.; Li, J. Intelligent disassembly of electric-vehicle batteries: A forward-looking overview. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. **2022** , 182, 106207. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Intelligent+disassembly+of+electric-vehicle+batteries:+A+forward-looking+overview&author=Meng,+K.&author=Xu,+G.&author=Peng,+X.&author=Youcef-Toumi,+K.&author=Li,+J.&publication_year=2022&journal=Resour.+Conserv.+Recycl.&volume=182&pages=106207&doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106207)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106207)]
  35. Ma, X.; Ma, Y.; Zhou, J.; Xiong, S. The recycling of spent power battery: Economic benefits and policy suggestions. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. **2018** , 159, 012017. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+recycling+of+spent+power+battery:+Economic+benefits+and+policy+suggestions&author=Ma,+X.&author=Ma,+Y.&author=Zhou,+J.&author=Xiong,+S.&publication_year=2018&journal=IOP+Conf.+Ser.+Earth+Environ.+Sci.&volume=159&pages=012017&doi=10.1088/1755-1315/159/1/012017)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/159/1/012017)]
  36. Mohr, M.; Peters, J.F.; Baumann, M.; Weil, M. Toward a cell-chemistry specific life cycle assessment of lithium-ion battery recycling processes. J. Ind. Ecol. **2020** , 24, 1310–1322. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Toward+a+cell-chemistry+specific+life+cycle+assessment+of+lithium-ion+battery+recycling+processes&author=Mohr,+M.&author=Peters,+J.F.&author=Baumann,+M.&author=Weil,+M.&publication_year=2020&journal=J.+Ind.+Ecol.&volume=24&pages=1310%E2%80%931322&doi=10.1111/jiec.13021)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.13021)]
  37. Tarabay, B.; Milovanoff, A.; Abdul-Manan, A.F.; McKechnie, J.; MacLean, H.L.; Posen, I.D. New cathodes now. recycling later: Dynamic scenarios to reduce battery material use and greenhouse gas emissions from US light-duty electric vehicle fleet. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. **2023** , 196, 107028. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=New+cathodes+now.+recycling+later:+Dynamic+scenarios+to+reduce+battery+material+use+and+greenhouse+gas+emissions+from+US+light-duty+electric+vehicle+fleet&author=Tarabay,+B.&author=Milovanoff,+A.&author=Abdul-Manan,+A.F.&author=McKechnie,+J.&author=MacLean,+H.L.&author=Posen,+I.D.&publication_year=2023&journal=Resour.+Conserv.+Recycl.&volume=196&pages=107028&doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2023.107028)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2023.107028)]
  38. Hao, H.; Qiao, Q.; Liu, Z.; Zhao, F. Impact of recycling on energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions from electric vehicle production: The China 2025 case. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. **2017** , 122, 114–125. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Impact+of+recycling+on+energy+consumption+and+greenhouse+gas+emissions+from+electric+vehicle+production:+The+China+2025+case&author=Hao,+H.&author=Qiao,+Q.&author=Liu,+Z.&author=Zhao,+F.&publication_year=2017&journal=Resour.+Conserv.+Recycl.&volume=122&pages=114%E2%80%93125&doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.02.005)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.02.005)]
  39. Kastanaki, E.; Giannis, A. Dynamic estimation of end-of-life electric vehicle batteries in the EU-27 considering reuse. remanufacturing and recycling options. J. Clean. Prod. **2023** , 393, 136349. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Dynamic+estimation+of+end-of-life+electric+vehicle+batteries+in+the+EU-27+considering+reuse.+remanufacturing+and+recycling+options&author=Kastanaki,+E.&author=Giannis,+A.&publication_year=2023&journal=J.+Clean.+Prod.&volume=393&pages=136349&doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.136349)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.136349)]
  40. Xu, C.; Dai, Q.; Gaines, L.; Hu, M.; Tukker, A.; Steubing, B. Future material demand for automotive lithium-based batteries. Commun. Mater. **2020** , 1, 99. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Future+material+demand+for+automotive+lithium-based+batteries&author=Xu,+C.&author=Dai,+Q.&author=Gaines,+L.&author=Hu,+M.&author=Tukker,+A.&author=Steubing,+B.&publication_year=2020&journal=Commun.+Mater.&volume=1&pages=99&doi=10.1038/s43246-020-00095-x)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1038/s43246-020-00095-x)]
  41. Innovation/Innovation-Needs-in-the-Sustainable-Development-Scenario. Available online: <https://www.iea.org/reports/clean-energy-innovation/innovation-needs-in-the-sustainable-development-scenario> (accessed on 15 April 2023).
  42. Ahmadi, L.; Young, S.B.; Fowler, M.; Fraser, R.A.; Achachlouei, M.A. A cascaded life cycle: Reuse of electric vehicle lithium-ion battery packs in energy storage systems. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. **2017** , 22, 111–124. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=A+cascaded+life+cycle:+Reuse+of+electric+vehicle+lithium-ion+battery+packs+in+energy+storage+systems&author=Ahmadi,+L.&author=Young,+S.B.&author=Fowler,+M.&author=Fraser,+R.A.&author=Achachlouei,+M.A.&publication_year=2017&journal=Int.+J.+Life+Cycle+Assess.&volume=22&pages=111%E2%80%93124&doi=10.1007/s11367-015-0959-7)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-015-0959-7)]
  43. Heymans, C.; Walker, S.B.; Young, S.B.; Fowler, M. Economic analysis of second use electric vehicle batteries for residential energy storage and load-levelling. Energy Policy **2014** , 71, 22–30. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Economic+analysis+of+second+use+electric+vehicle+batteries+for+residential+energy+storage+and+load-levelling&author=Heymans,+C.&author=Walker,+S.B.&author=Young,+S.B.&author=Fowler,+M.&publication_year=2014&journal=Energy+Policy&volume=71&pages=22%E2%80%9330&doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2014.04.016)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2014.04.016)]
  44. Picatoste, A.; Justel, D.; Mendoza, J.M.F. Circularity and life cycle environmental impact assessment of batteries for electric vehicles: Industrial challenges. Best practices and research guidelines. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. **2022** , 169, 112941. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Circularity+and+life+cycle+environmental+impact+assessment+of+batteries+for+electric+vehicles:+Industrial+challenges.+Best+practices+and+research+guidelines&author=Picatoste,+A.&author=Justel,+D.&author=Mendoza,+J.M.F.&publication_year=2022&journal=Renew.+Sustain.+Energy+Rev.&volume=169&pages=112941&doi=10.1016/j.rser.2022.112941)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112941)]
  45. Bauer, C.; Hofer, J.; Althaus, H.J.; Del Duce, A.; Simons, A. The environmental performance of current and future passenger vehicles: Life cycle assessment based on a novel scenario analysis framework. Appl. Energy **2015** , 157, 871–883. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+environmental+performance+of+current+and+future+passenger+vehicles:+Life+cycle+assessment+based+on+a+novel+scenario+analysis+framework&author=Bauer,+C.&author=Hofer,+J.&author=Althaus,+H.J.&author=Del+Duce,+A.&author=Simons,+A.&publication_year=2015&journal=Appl.+Energy&volume=157&pages=871%E2%80%93883&doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.019)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.019)]
  46. Naranjo, G.P.S.; Bolonio, D.; Ortega, M.F.; García-Martínez, M.J. Comparative life cycle assessment of conventional. Electric and hybrid passenger vehicles in Spain. J. Clean. Prod. **2021** , 291, 125883. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Comparative+life+cycle+assessment+of+conventional.+Electric+and+hybrid+passenger+vehicles+in+Spain&author=Naranjo,+G.P.S.&author=Bolonio,+D.&author=Ortega,+M.F.&author=Garc%C3%ADa-Mart%C3%ADnez,+M.J.&publication_year=2021&journal=J.+Clean.+Prod.&volume=291&pages=125883&doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.125883)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.125883)]
  47. Messagie, M. Life Cycle Analysis of the Climate Impact of Electric Vehicles. Available online: [https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Life%20cycle%20analysis%20of%20the%20climate%20impact%20of%20electric%20vehicles&author=M.%20Messagie&publication_year=2017](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Life%20cycle%20analysis%20of%20the%20climate%20impact%20of%20electric%20vehicles&author=M.%20Messagie&publication_year=2017) (accessed on 2 May 2023).
  48. Bouter, A.; Hache, E.; Ternel, C.; Beauchet, S. Comparative environmental life cycle assessment of several powertrain types for cars and buses in France for two driving cycles: “Worldwide harmonized light vehicle test procedure” cycle and urban cycle. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. **2020** , 25, 1545–1565. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Comparative+environmental+life+cycle+assessment+of+several+powertrain+types+for+cars+and+buses+in+France+for+two+driving+cycles:+%E2%80%9CWorldwide+harmonized+light+vehicle+test+procedure%E2%80%9D+cycle+and+urban+cycle&author=Bouter,+A.&author=Hache,+E.&author=Ternel,+C.&author=Beauchet,+S.&publication_year=2020&journal=Int.+J.+Life+Cycle+Assess.&volume=25&pages=1545%E2%80%931565&doi=10.1007/s11367-020-01756-2)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-020-01756-2)]
  49. Dunn, J.B.; Gaines, L.; Sullivan, J.; Wang, M.Q. Impact of recycling on cradle-to-gate energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of automotive lithium-ion batteries. Environ. Sci. Technol. **2012** , 46, 12704–12710. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Impact+of+recycling+on+cradle-to-gate+energy+consumption+and+greenhouse+gas+emissions+of+automotive+lithium-ion+batteries&author=Dunn,+J.B.&author=Gaines,+L.&author=Sullivan,+J.&author=Wang,+M.Q.&publication_year=2012&journal=Environ.+Sci.+Technol.&volume=46&pages=12704%E2%80%9312710&doi=10.1021/es302420z&pmid=23075406)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1021/es302420z)] [[PubMed](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23075406)]
  50. Lei, C.; Aldous, I.; Hartley, J.M.; Thompson, D.L.; Scott, S.; Hanson, R.; Anderson, P.A.; Kendrick, E.; Sommerville, R.; Ryder, K.S.; et al. Lithium ion battery recycling using high-intensity ultrasonication. Green. Chem. **2021** , 23, 4710–4715. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Lithium+ion+battery+recycling+using+high-intensity+ultrasonication&author=Lei,+C.&author=Aldous,+I.&author=Hartley,+J.M.&author=Thompson,+D.L.&author=Scott,+S.&author=Hanson,+R.&author=Anderson,+P.A.&author=Kendrick,+E.&author=Sommerville,+R.&author=Ryder,+K.S.&publication_year=2021&journal=Green.+Chem.&volume=23&pages=4710%E2%80%934715&doi=10.1039/D1GC01623G)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1039/D1GC01623G)]
  51. Leroutier, M.; Quirion, P. Air pollution and CO2 from daily mobility: Who emits and Why? Evidence from Paris. Energy Econ. **2022** , 109, 105941. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Air+pollution+and+CO2+from+daily+mobility:+Who+emits+and+Why?+Evidence+from+Paris&author=Leroutier,+M.&author=Quirion,+P.&publication_year=2022&journal=Energy+Econ.&volume=109&pages=105941&doi=10.1016/j.eneco.2022.105941)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2022.105941)]
  52. Brand, C.; Boardman, B. Taming of the few—The unequal distribution of greenhouse gas emissions from personal travel in the UK. Energy Policy **2008** , 36, 224–238. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Taming+of+the+few%E2%80%94The+unequal+distribution+of+greenhouse+gas+emissions+from+personal+travel+in+the+UK&author=Brand,+C.&author=Boardman,+B.&publication_year=2008&journal=Energy+Policy&volume=36&pages=224%E2%80%93238&doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2007.08.016)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2007.08.016)]
  53. Ko, J.; Park, D.; Lim, H.; Hwang, I.C. Who produces the most CO2 emissions for trips in the Seoul metropolis area? Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. **2011** , 16, 358–364. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Who+produces+the+most+CO2+emissions+for+trips+in+the+Seoul+metropolis+area?&author=Ko,+J.&author=Park,+D.&author=Lim,+H.&author=Hwang,+I.C.&publication_year=2011&journal=Transp.+Res.+Part+D+Transp.+Environ.&volume=16&pages=358%E2%80%93364&doi=10.1016/j.trd.2011.02.001)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2011.02.001)]
  54. Eurostat. Energy Sources. Available online: <https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/interactive-publications/energy-2023#energy-environment> (accessed on 7 June 2023).
  55. Shrestha, A.; Mustafa, A.A.; Htike, M.M.; You, V.; Kakinaka, M. Evolution of energy mix in emerging countries: Modern renewable energy, traditional renewable energy, and non-renewable energy. Renew. Energy **2022** , 199, 419–432. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Evolution+of+energy+mix+in+emerging+countries:+Modern+renewable+energy,+traditional+renewable+energy,+and+non-renewable+energy&author=Shrestha,+A.&author=Mustafa,+A.A.&author=Htike,+M.M.&author=You,+V.&author=Kakinaka,+M.&publication_year=2022&journal=Renew.+Energy&volume=199&pages=419%E2%80%93432&doi=10.1016/j.renene.2022.09.018)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2022.09.018)]
  56. Global Energy Review 2021. Electricity. Available online: <https://www.iea.org/reports/global-energy-review-2021/electricity,> (accessed on 20 July 2023).
  57. Díaz, A.; Marrero, G.A.; Puch, L.A.; Rodríguez, J. Economic growth. Energy intensity and the energy mix. Energy Econ. **2019** , 81, 1056–1077. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Economic+growth.+Energy+intensity+and+the+energy+mix&author=D%C3%ADaz,+A.&author=Marrero,+G.A.&author=Puch,+L.A.&author=Rodr%C3%ADguez,+J.&publication_year=2019&journal=Energy+Econ.&volume=81&pages=1056%E2%80%931077&doi=10.1016/j.eneco.2019.05.022)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2019.05.022)]
  58. Toonen, H.M.; Lindeboom, H.J. Dark green electricity comes from the sea: Capitalizing on ecological merits of offshore wind power? Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. **2015** , 42, 1023–1033. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Dark+green+electricity+comes+from+the+sea:+Capitalizing+on+ecological+merits+of+offshore+wind+power?&author=Toonen,+H.M.&author=Lindeboom,+H.J.&publication_year=2015&journal=Renew.+Sustain.+Energy+Rev.&volume=42&pages=1023%E2%80%931033&doi=10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.043)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.043)]
  59. Dai, H.; Mamkhezri, J.; Arshed, N.; Javaid, A.; Salem, S.; Khan, Y.A. Role of energy mix in determining climate change vulnerability in G7 countries. Sustainability **2022** , 14, 2161. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Role+of+energy+mix+in+determining+climate+change+vulnerability+in+G7+countries&author=Dai,+H.&author=Mamkhezri,+J.&author=Arshed,+N.&author=Javaid,+A.&author=Salem,+S.&author=Khan,+Y.A.&publication_year=2022&journal=Sustainability&volume=14&pages=2161&doi=10.3390/su14042161)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.3390/su14042161)]
  60. Bhattacharya, M.; Paramati, S.R.; Ozturk, I.; Bhattacharya, S. The effect of renewable energy consumption on economic growth: Evidence from top 38 countries. Appl. Energy **2016** , 162, 733–741. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+effect+of+renewable+energy+consumption+on+economic+growth:+Evidence+from+top+38+countries&author=Bhattacharya,+M.&author=Paramati,+S.R.&author=Ozturk,+I.&author=Bhattacharya,+S.&publication_year=2016&journal=Appl.+Energy&volume=162&pages=733%E2%80%93741&doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.10.104)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.10.104)]
  61. Directive (EU) 2018/2001 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2018 on the Promotion of the Use of Energy from Renewable Sources (Recast) (Text with EEA Relevance). Available online: <https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32018L2001> (accessed on 10 May 2023).
  62. Green Deal. Available online: <https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal/delivering-european-green-deal_en> (accessed on 20 April 2023).
  63. Destek, M.A.; Aslan, A. Renewable and non-renewable energy consumption and economic growth in emerging economies: Evidence from bootstrap panel causality. Renew. Energy **2017** , 111, 757–763. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Renewable+and+non-renewable+energy+consumption+and+economic+growth+in+emerging+economies:+Evidence+from+bootstrap+panel+causality&author=Destek,+M.A.&author=Aslan,+A.&publication_year=2017&journal=Renew.+Energy&volume=111&pages=757%E2%80%93763&doi=10.1016/j.renene.2017.05.008)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.05.008)]
  64. Tan, X.; Sun, Q.; Wang, M.; Cheong, T.S.; Shum, W.Y.; Huang, J. Assessing the effects of emissions trading systems on energy consumption and energy mix. Appl. Energy **2022** , 310, 118583. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Assessing+the+effects+of+emissions+trading+systems+on+energy+consumption+and+energy+mix&author=Tan,+X.&author=Sun,+Q.&author=Wang,+M.&author=Cheong,+T.S.&author=Shum,+W.Y.&author=Huang,+J.&publication_year=2022&journal=Appl.+Energy&volume=310&pages=118583&doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.118583)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.118583)]
  65. Gambhir, A.; Napp, T.A.; Emmott, C.J.; Anandarajah, G. India’s CO2 emissions pathways to 2050: Energy system, economic and fossil fuel impacts with and without carbon permit trading. Energy **2014** , 77, 791–801. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=India%E2%80%99s+CO2+emissions+pathways+to+2050:+Energy+system,+economic+and+fossil+fuel+impacts+with+and+without+carbon+permit+trading&author=Gambhir,+A.&author=Napp,+T.A.&author=Emmott,+C.J.&author=Anandarajah,+G.&publication_year=2014&journal=Energy&volume=77&pages=791%E2%80%93801&doi=10.1016/j.energy.2014.09.055)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.09.055)]
  66. Marrero, G.A. Greenhouse gases emissions. growth and the energy mix in Europe. Energy Econ. **2010** , 32, 1356–1363. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Greenhouse+gases+emissions.+growth+and+the+energy+mix+in+Europe&author=Marrero,+G.A.&publication_year=2010&journal=Energy+Econ.&volume=32&pages=1356%E2%80%931363&doi=10.1016/j.eneco.2010.09.007)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2010.09.007)]
  67. Müller, N.; Teixidó, J.J. The effect of the EU ETS free allowance allocation on energy mix diversification: The case of Poland’s power sector. Clim. Policy **2021** , 21, 804–822. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+effect+of+the+EU+ETS+free+allowance+allocation+on+energy+mix+diversification:+The+case+of+Poland%E2%80%99s+power+sector&author=M%C3%BCller,+N.&author=Teixid%C3%B3,+J.J.&publication_year=2021&journal=Clim.+Policy&volume=21&pages=804%E2%80%93822&doi=10.1080/14693062.2020.1870914)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2020.1870914)]
  68. Martins, F.; Felgueiras, C.; Smitková, M. Fossil fuel energy consumption in European countries. Energy Procedia **2018** , 153, 107–111. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Fossil+fuel+energy+consumption+in+European+countries&author=Martins,+F.&author=Felgueiras,+C.&author=Smitkov%C3%A1,+M.&publication_year=2018&journal=Energy+Procedia&volume=153&pages=107%E2%80%93111&doi=10.1016/j.egypro.2018.10.050)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2018.10.050)]
  69. Michalak, A.; Wolniak, R. The innovativeness of the country and the renewables and non-renewables in the Energy mix on the example of European Union. J. Open Innov. Technol. Mark. Complex. **2023** , 9, 100061. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The+innovativeness+of+the+country+and+the+renewables+and+non-renewables+in+the+Energy+mix+on+the+example+of+European+Union&author=Michalak,+A.&author=Wolniak,+R.&publication_year=2023&journal=J.+Open+Innov.+Technol.+Mark.+Complex.&volume=9&pages=100061&doi=10.1016/j.joitmc.2023.100061)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joitmc.2023.100061)]
  70. Eurostat. Energy Environment. Energy 2023. Available online: <https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/interactive-publications/energy-2023> (accessed on 2 July 2023).
  71. Czaplicka-Kolarz, K.; Pyka, I. Miks energetyczny w Unii Europejskiej do 2030 r.-rola paliw rodzimych (Energy mix in the European Union until 2030—The role of domestic fuels). Gór. Geoinż. **2007** , 31, 171–178. (In Polish) [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Miks+energetyczny+w+Unii+Europejskiej+do+2030+r.-rola+paliw+rodzimych+\(Energy+mix+in+the+European+Union+until+2030%E2%80%94The+role+of+domestic+fuels\)&author=Czaplicka-Kolarz,+K.&author=Pyka,+I.&publication_year=2007&journal=G%C3%B3r.+Geoin%C5%BC.&volume=31&pages=171%E2%80%93178)]
  72. Said, Z.; Alshehhi, A.A.; Mehmood, A. Predictions of UAE’s renewable energy mix in 2030. Renew. Energy **2018** , 118, 779–789. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Predictions+of+UAE%E2%80%99s+renewable+energy+mix+in+2030&author=Said,+Z.&author=Alshehhi,+A.A.&author=Mehmood,+A.&publication_year=2018&journal=Renew.+Energy&volume=118&pages=779%E2%80%93789&doi=10.1016/j.renene.2017.11.075)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.11.075)]
  73. Total Energy Supply (TES) by Source, People’s Republic of China 1990–2020, World Energy Balances 2022. Available online: <https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-product/world-energy-statistics-and-balances> (accessed on 30 September 2023).
  74. Energy Production and Consumption in the United States 2021. Available online: <https://www.e-education.psu.edu/ebf301/node/457> (accessed on 1 October 2023).
  75. 2022 Share of Electricity from Renewable Energy Sources in Japan (Preliminary). Available online: <https://energytracker.asia/the-energy-mix-review-in-japan-a-glimpse-of-the-future/> (accessed on 1 October 2023).
  76. U.S Energy Information Administration, EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. Available online: <https://www.eia.gov/international/analysis/country/IND> (accessed on 1 October 2023).
  77. Mi, Z.; Sun, X. Provinces with transitions in industrial structure and energy mix performed best in climate change mitigation in China. Commun. Earth Environ. **2021** , 2, 182. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Provinces+with+transitions+in+industrial+structure+and+energy+mix+performed+best+in+climate+change+mitigation+in+China&author=Mi,+Z.&author=Sun,+X.&publication_year=2021&journal=Commun.+Earth+Environ.&volume=2&pages=182&doi=10.1038/s43247-021-00258-9)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-021-00258-9)]
  78. Baležentis, T.; Štreimikienė, D. Sustainability in the electricity sector through advanced technologies: Energy mix transition and smart grid technology in China. Energies **2019** , 12, 1142. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Sustainability+in+the+electricity+sector+through+advanced+technologies:+Energy+mix+transition+and+smart+grid+technology+in+China&author=Bale%C5%BEentis,+T.&author=%C5%A0treimikien%C4%97,+D.&publication_year=2019&journal=Energies&volume=12&pages=1142&doi=10.3390/en12061142)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.3390/en12061142)]
  79. Hossain, M.R.; Rana, M.J.; Saha, S.M.; Haseeb, M.; Islam, M.S.; Amin, M.R.; Hossain, M.E. Role of energy mix and eco-innovation in achieving environmental sustainability in the USA using the dynamic ARDL approach: Accounting the supply side of the ecosystem. Renew. Energy **2023** , 118925. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Role+of+energy+mix+and+eco-innovation+in+achieving+environmental+sustainability+in+the+USA+using+the+dynamic+ARDL+approach:+Accounting+the+supply+side+of+the+ecosystem&author=Hossain,+M.R.&author=Rana,+M.J.&author=Saha,+S.M.&author=Haseeb,+M.&author=Islam,+M.S.&author=Amin,+M.R.&author=Hossain,+M.E.&publication_year=2023&journal=Renew.+Energy&pages=118925&doi=10.1016/j.renene.2023.118925)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2023.118925)]
  80. Madurai Elavarasan, R.; Selvamanohar, L.; Raju, K.; Rajan Vijayaraghavan, R.; Subburaj, R.; Nurunnabi, M.; Khan, I.A.; Afridhis, S.; Hariharan, A.; Pugazhendhi, R.; et al. A holistic review of the present and future drivers of the renewable energy mix in Maharashtra, State of India. Sustainability **2020** , 12, 6596. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=A+holistic+review+of+the+present+and+future+drivers+of+the+renewable+energy+mix+in+Maharashtra,+State+of+India&author=Madurai+Elavarasan,+R.&author=Selvamanohar,+L.&author=Raju,+K.&author=Rajan+Vijayaraghavan,+R.&author=Subburaj,+R.&author=Nurunnabi,+M.&author=Khan,+I.A.&author=Afridhis,+S.&author=Hariharan,+A.&author=Pugazhendhi,+R.&publication_year=2020&journal=Sustainability&volume=12&pages=6596&doi=10.3390/su12166596)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.3390/su12166596)]
  81. Wójcik, M.; Pawłowska, B.; Stachowicz, F. Przegląd technologii recyklingu zużytych akumulatorów litowo-jonowych (Overview of recycling technologies for used lithium-ion batteries). Zesz. Nauk. Politech. Rzesz. **2017** , 89, 107–120. (In Polish) [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Przegl%C4%85d+technologii+recyklingu+zu%C5%BCytych+akumulator%C3%B3w+litowo-jonowych+\(Overview+of+recycling+technologies+for+used+lithium-ion+batteries\)&author=W%C3%B3jcik,+M.&author=Paw%C5%82owska,+B.&author=Stachowicz,+F.&publication_year=2017&journal=Zesz.+Nauk.+Politech.+Rzesz.&volume=89&pages=107%E2%80%93120)]
  82. Abdel-Monem, M.; Hegazy, O.; Omar, N.; Trad, K.; Van den Bossche, P.; Van Mierlo, J. Lithium-ion Batteries: Comprehensive Technical Analysis of Second-Life Batteries for Smart Grid Applications. In Proceedings of the 19th European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications, Warsaw, Poland, 11–14 September 2017. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Lithium-ion+Batteries:+Comprehensive+Technical+Analysis+of+Second-Life+Batteries+for+Smart+Grid+Applications&conference=Proceedings+of+the+19th+European+Conference+on+Power+Electronics+and+Applications&author=Abdel-Monem,+M.&author=Hegazy,+O.&author=Omar,+N.&author=Trad,+K.&author=Van+den+Bossche,+P.&author=Van+Mierlo,+J.&publication_year=2017&doi=10.23919/EPE17ECCEEurope.2017.8099385)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.23919/EPE17ECCEEurope.2017.8099385)]
  83. Pražanová, A.; Knap, V.; Stroe, D.-I. Literature Review. Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries from Electric Vehicles. Part I: Recycling Technology. Energies **2022** , 15, 1086. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Literature+Review.+Recycling+of+Lithium-Ion+Batteries+from+Electric+Vehicles.+Part+I:+Recycling+Technology&author=Pra%C5%BEanov%C3%A1,+A.&author=Knap,+V.&author=Stroe,+D.-I.&publication_year=2022&journal=Energies&volume=15&pages=1086&doi=10.3390/en15031086)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.3390/en15031086)]
  84. Wojciechowski, A.; Łukasik, Z. Recykling pojazdów elektrycznych i hybrydowych (Recycling of electric and hybrid vehicles). Logistyka **2014** , 6, 11268–11277. (In Polish) [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Recykling+pojazd%C3%B3w+elektrycznych+i+hybrydowych+\(Recycling+of+electric+and+hybrid+vehicles\)&author=Wojciechowski,+A.&author=%C5%81ukasik,+Z.&publication_year=2014&journal=Logistyka&volume=6&pages=11268%E2%80%9311277)]
  85. Re-Use. Recycling and Recovery of Vehicle Parts and Materials. Available online: <https://eur-lex.europa.eu/EN/legal-content/summary/re-use-recycling-and-recovery-of-vehicle-parts-and-materials.html> (accessed on 16 June 2023).
  86. Zrównoważone Dostawy Surowców Krytycznych Kluczowych dla Przemysłu UE (Sustainable Supply of Critical Raw Materials Key to EU Industry). Available online: [https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/pl/headlines/society/20211118STO17611/zrownowazone-dostawy-surowcow-krytycznych-kluczowych-dla-przemyslu-ue?at_campaign=20234-Economy&at_medium=Google_Ads&at_platform=Search&at_creation=DSA&at_goal=TR_G&at_audience=&at_topic=Raw_batteries&gclid=EAIaIQobChMIrbWmidPH_wIVXAqiAx2TyAdREAAYASAAEgKp6_D_BwE](https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/pl/headlines/society/20211118STO17611/zrownowazone-dostawy-surowcow-krytycznych-kluczowych-dla-przemyslu-ue?at_campaign=20234-Economy&at_medium=Google_Ads&at_platform=Search&at_creation=DSA&at_goal=TR_G&at_audience=&at_topic=Raw_batteries&gclid=EAIaIQobChMIrbWmidPH_wIVXAqiAx2TyAdREAAYASAAEgKp6_D_BwE) (accessed on 16 June 2023). (In Polish).
  87. Surowce Strategiczne i Krytyczne Dla Polski i UE (Strategic and Critical Raw Materials for Poland and the EU). Available online: <https://www.gov.pl/web/klimat/surowce-strategiczne-i-krytyczne-dla-polski-i-ue> (accessed on 16 June 2023). (In Polish)
  88. Directive 2006/66/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 September 2006 on Batteries and Accumulators and Waste Batteries and Accumulators and Repealing Directive 91/157/EEC (Consolidated Text). Available online: <https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:02006L0066-20180704> (accessed on 16 June 2023).
  89. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament. The Council. The European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions a New Circular Economy Action Plan for a Cleaner and More Competitive Europe. Available online: [https://eur-lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:9903b325-6388-11ea-b735-01aa75ed71a1.0017.02/DOC_1&format=PDF](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:9903b325-6388-11ea-b735-01aa75ed71a1.0017.02/DOC_1&format=PDF) (accessed on 16 June 2023).
  90. Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council Concerning Batteries and waste batteries. Repealing Directive 2006/66/EC and Amending Regulation (EU) No 2019/1020. Available online: [https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52020PC0798&qid=1608192505371](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52020PC0798&qid=1608192505371) (accessed on 16 June 2023).
  91. Łukasik, Z.; Wojciechowski, A. Odzysk materiałowy z części i podzespołów z samochodów EV i HEV wycofanych z eksploatacji (Material recovery from parts and components from end-of-life EVs and HEVs). Elektronika **2015** , 4, 63–68. (In Polish) [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Odzysk+materia%C5%82owy+z+cz%C4%99%C5%9Bci+i+podzespo%C5%82%C3%B3w+z+samochod%C3%B3w+EV+i+HEV+wycofanych+z+eksploatacji+\(Material+recovery+from+parts+and+components+from+end-of-life+EVs+and+HEVs\)&author=%C5%81ukasik,+Z.&author=Wojciechowski,+A.&publication_year=2015&journal=Elektronika&volume=4&pages=63%E2%80%9368&doi=10.15199/13.2015.4.12)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.15199/13.2015.4.12)]
  92. Gola-Sienkiewicz, R. Recykling aut elektrycznych i hybrydowych Cz. I (Recycling of electric and hybrid car. Part 1). Recykling **2013** , 11, 24–25. (In Polish) [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Recykling+aut+elektrycznych+i+hybrydowych+Cz.+I+\(Recycling+of+electric+and+hybrid+car.+Part+1\)&author=Gola-Sienkiewicz,+R.&publication_year=2013&journal=Recykling&volume=11&pages=24%E2%80%9325)]
  93. Kotak, Y.; Marchante Fernández, C.; Canals Casals, L.; Kotak, B.S.; Koch, D.; Geisbauer, C.; Trilla, L.; Gómez-Núñez, A.; Schweiger, H.-G. End of Electric Vehicle Batteries: Reuse vs. Recycle. Energies **2021** , 14, 2217. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=End+of+Electric+Vehicle+Batteries:+Reuse+vs.+Recycle&author=Kotak,+Y.&author=Marchante+Fern%C3%A1ndez,+C.&author=Canals+Casals,+L.&author=Kotak,+B.S.&author=Koch,+D.&author=Geisbauer,+C.&author=Trilla,+L.&author=G%C3%B3mez-N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez,+A.&author=Schweiger,+H.-G.&publication_year=2021&journal=Energies&volume=14&pages=2217&doi=10.3390/en14082217)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.3390/en14082217)]
  94. Batteries for Electric Vehicles. Available online: <https://afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/electric_batteries.html> (accessed on 21 June 2023).
  95. Kaminska, S.; Pawlak, P. Analiza ekobilansowa recyklingu zużytych litowo-jonowych akumulatorów samochodowych w technologii Retriev (The ecobalance analysis of the Retriev recycling technology of used car Lithium-ion batteries). Mater. Econ. Logist. J. **2020** , 11, 35–44. (In Polish) [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Analiza+ekobilansowa+recyklingu+zu%C5%BCytych+litowo-jonowych+akumulator%C3%B3w+samochodowych+w+technologii+Retriev+\(The+ecobalance+analysis+of+the+Retriev+recycling+technology+of+used+car+Lithium-ion+batteries\)&author=Kaminska,+S.&author=Pawlak,+P.&publication_year=2020&journal=Mater.+Econ.+Logist.+J.&volume=11&pages=35%E2%80%9344&doi=10.33226/1231-2037.2020.11.4)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.33226/1231-2037.2020.11.4)]
  96. Sonoc, A.; Jeswiet, J.; Soo, V.K. Opportunities to Improve Recycling of Automotive Lithium Ion Batteries. Procedia CIRP **2015** , 29, 752–757. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Opportunities+to+Improve+Recycling+of+Automotive+Lithium+Ion+Batteries&author=Sonoc,+A.&author=Jeswiet,+J.&author=Soo,+V.K.&publication_year=2015&journal=Procedia+CIRP&volume=29&pages=752%E2%80%93757&doi=10.1016/j.procir.2015.02.039)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2015.02.039)]
  97. Duesenfeld Recycling. Available online: <https://www.duesenfeld.com/recycling_en.html]> (accessed on 22 June 2023).
  98. What Exactly Is Lithium Battery ‘Black Mass’? Available online: <https://aquametals.com/recyclopedia/what-exactly-is-black-mass/> (accessed on 22 June 2023).
  99. How Are Lithium-Ion Batteries Recycled? Available online: <https://aquametals.com/recyclopedia/how-are-lithium-ion-batteries-recycled/> (accessed on 23 June 2023).
  100. Batteries Europe European Technology and Innovation Platform WG2: Raw Materials and Recycling Roadmap. Available online: <https://batterieseurope.eu/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Roadmap-on-raw-materials-and-recycling-roadmap_WG2.pdf> (accessed on 27 June 2023).
  101. McKinsey & Company. Second-Life EV Batteries: The Newest Value Pool in Energy Storage. Available online: <https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/Industries/Automotive%20and%20Assembly/Our%20Insights/Second%20life%20EV%20batteries%20The%20newest%20value%20pool%20in%20energy%20storage/Second-life-EV-batteries-The-newest-value-pool-in-energy-storage.ashx> (accessed on 28 June 2023).
  102. Wood, E.; Alexander, M.; Bradley, T.H. Investigation of battery end-of-life conditions for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. J. Power Sources **2011** , 196, 5147–5154. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Investigation+of+battery+end-of-life+conditions+for+plug-in+hybrid+electric+vehicles&author=Wood,+E.&author=Alexander,+M.&author=Bradley,+T.H.&publication_year=2011&journal=J.+Power+Sources&volume=196&pages=5147%E2%80%935154&doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.02.025)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.02.025)]
  103. USABC Electric Vehicle Battery Test Procedures Manual Revision 2. 1996. Idaho National Engineering Laboratory. The US. Department of Energy Idaho Field Office. Available online: <https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc666152/m2/1/high_res_d/214312.pdf> (accessed on 28 June 2023).
  104. Canals Casals, L.; Etxandi-Santolaya, M.; Bibiloni-Mulet, P.A.; Corchero, C.; Trilla, L. Electric Vehicle Battery Health Expected at End of Life in the Upcoming Years Based on UK Data. Batteries **2022** , 8, 164. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Electric+Vehicle+Battery+Health+Expected+at+End+of+Life+in+the+Upcoming+Years+Based+on+UK+Data&author=Canals+Casals,+L.&author=Etxandi-Santolaya,+M.&author=Bibiloni-Mulet,+P.A.&author=Corchero,+C.&author=Trilla,+L.&publication_year=2022&journal=Batteries&volume=8&pages=164&doi=10.3390/batteries8100164)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100164)]
  105. Canals Casals, L.; García, B.A.; Cremades, L.V. Electric Vehicle Battery Reuse: Preparing for a Second Life. J. Ind. Eng. Manag. **2017** , 10, 266–285. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Electric+Vehicle+Battery+Reuse:+Preparing+for+a+Second+Life&author=Canals+Casals,+L.&author=Garc%C3%ADa,+B.A.&author=Cremades,+L.V.&publication_year=2017&journal=J.+Ind.+Eng.+Manag.&volume=10&pages=266%E2%80%93285&doi=10.3926/jiem.2009)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.3926/jiem.2009)]
  106. Olsson, L.; Fallahi, S.; Schnurr, M.; Diener, D.; Van Loon, P. Circular Business Models for Extended EV Battery Life. Batteries **2018** , 4, 57. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Circular+Business+Models+for+Extended+EV+Battery+Life&author=Olsson,+L.&author=Fallahi,+S.&author=Schnurr,+M.&author=Diener,+D.&author=Van+Loon,+P.&publication_year=2018&journal=Batteries&volume=4&pages=57&doi=10.3390/batteries4040057)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries4040057)]
  107. Automakers on Second-Life Batteries for the Grid: ‘We Want a Foot in the Door of This Market’. Available online: <https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/automakers-on-second-life-batteries-for-the-grid-we-want-a-foot-in-the-do> (accessed on 28 June 2023).
  108. Germany: 13 MWh “Second Use” Battery Storage Project. Available online: <https://www.pv-magazine.com/2015/11/04/germany-13-mwh-second-use-battery-storage-project_100021846/> (accessed on 28 June 2023).
  109. Energy Storage: 13 MWh Second-Use Battery for Grid Stabilization in Lünen. Available online: <https://www.pveurope.eu/solar-storage/energy-storage-13-mwh-second-use-battery-grid-stabilization-luenen> (accessed on 28 June 2023).
  110. Nissan. Green Charge Networks Turn ‘Second-Life’ EV Batteries into Grid Storage Business. Available online: <https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/nissan-green-charge-networks-turn-second-life-ev-batteries-into-grid-storag> (accessed on 28 June 2023).
  111. Nissan and 4R Energy Partner with Green Charge Networks for Commercial Energy Storage Featuring Second-Life Electric Vehicle Batteries. Available online: <https://usa.nissannews.com/en-US/releases/nissan-and-4r-energy-partner-with-green-charge-networks-for-commercial-energy-storage-featuring-second-life-electric-vehicle-batteries?selectedTabId=releases#> (accessed on 28 June 2023).
  112. ABB. Nissan to Test Leaf Batteries for Community Storage. Available online: <https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/abb-nissan-to-test-leaf-batteries-for-community-storage1> (accessed on 28 June 2023).
  113. BMW Group UK Second-Life Battery Solution in Partnership with off Grid Energy. Available online: <https://www.press.bmwgroup.com/united-kingdom/article/detail/T0318650EN_GB/bmw-group-uk-second-life-battery-solution-in-partnership-with-off-grid-energy?language=en_GB> (accessed on 28 June 2023).
  114. BMW and Mini Batteries to Get Second Life as Mobile Power Units. Available online: <https://fleetworld.co.uk/bmw-and-mini-batteries-to-get-second-life-as-mobile-power-units/> (accessed on 28 June 2023).
  115. Chevy. Nissan Reveal Second-Life Uses for Electric-Car Batteries. Available online: <https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1098734_chevy-nissan-reveal-second-life-uses-for-electric-car-batteries> (accessed on 28 June 2023).
  116. Stationary Energy Battery Storage: Three New Projects in Europe. Available online: <https://events.renaultgroup.com/en/2022/01/27/stationary-energy-battery-storage-three-new-projects-in-europe/> (accessed on 28 June 2023).
  117. DB i Kia Dadzą Drugie Życie Zużytym Akumulatorom Samochodów Elektrycznych. Available online: <https://motofocus.pl/po-godzinach/106630/db-i-kia-dadza-drugie-zycie-zuzytym-akumulatorom-samochodow-elektrycznych> (accessed on 28 June 2023). (In Polish).
  118. Drugie i Trzecie Życie Baterii z Elektrycznych Samochodów i Autobusów. Available online: <https://businessinsider.com.pl/technologie/nowe-technologie/co-sie-dzieje-ze-zuzytymi-bateriami-z-samochodow-elektrycznych-i-autobusow/63wg6gm> (accessed on 28 June 2023). (In Polish).
  119. Jiao, N.; Evans, S. Business Models for Sustainability: The Case of Second-Life Electric Vehicle Batteries. Procedia CIRP **2016** , 40, 250–255. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Business+Models+for+Sustainability:+The+Case+of+Second-Life+Electric+Vehicle+Batteries&author=Jiao,+N.&author=Evans,+S.&publication_year=2016&journal=Procedia+CIRP&volume=40&pages=250%E2%80%93255&doi=10.1016/j.procir.2016.01.114)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2016.01.114)]
  120. Cao, J.; Chen, X.; Qiu, R.; Hou, S. Electric vehicle industry sustainable development with a stakeholder engagement system. Technol. Soc. **2021** , 67, 101771. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Electric+vehicle+industry+sustainable+development+with+a+stakeholder+engagement+system&author=Cao,+J.&author=Chen,+X.&author=Qiu,+R.&author=Hou,+S.&publication_year=2021&journal=Technol.+Soc.&volume=67&pages=101771&doi=10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101771)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101771)]
  121. Ma, Y.; Shi, T.; Zhang, W.; Hao, Y.; Huang, J.; Lin, Y. Comprehensive policy evaluation of NEV development in China, Japan, the United States, and Germany based on the AHP-EW model. J. Clean. Prod. **2019** , 214, 389–402. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Comprehensive+policy+evaluation+of+NEV+development+in+China,+Japan,+the+United+States,+and+Germany+based+on+the+AHP-EW+model&author=Ma,+Y.&author=Shi,+T.&author=Zhang,+W.&author=Hao,+Y.&author=Huang,+J.&author=Lin,+Y.&publication_year=2019&journal=J.+Clean.+Prod.&volume=214&pages=389%E2%80%93402&doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.12.119)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.12.119)]
  122. Li, W.; Yang, M.; Sandu, S. Electric vehicles in China: A review of current policies. Energy Environ. **2018** , 29, 1512–1524. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Electric+vehicles+in+China:+A+review+of+current+policies&author=Li,+W.&author=Yang,+M.&author=Sandu,+S.&publication_year=2018&journal=Energy+Environ.&volume=29&pages=1512%E2%80%931524&doi=10.1177/0958305X18781898)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1177/0958305X18781898)]
  123. Wu, Y.; Zhang, L. Can the development of electric vehicles reduce the emission of air pollutants and greenhouse gases in developing countries? Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. **2017** , 51, 129–145. [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Can+the+development+of+electric+vehicles+reduce+the+emission+of+air+pollutants+and+greenhouse+gases+in+developing+countries?&author=Wu,+Y.&author=Zhang,+L.&publication_year=2017&journal=Transp.+Res.+Part+D+Transp.+Environ.&volume=51&pages=129%E2%80%93145&doi=10.1016/j.trd.2016.12.007)] [[CrossRef](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2016.12.007)]



**Figure 1.** Cumulative carbon dioxide emissions in the production phase, in kg-CO2 (based on [13]). 

**Figure 1.** Cumulative carbon dioxide emissions in the production phase, in kg-CO2 (based on [13]).

**Figure 2.** Emissions in the entire life cycle of a vehicle (150,000 km, 10 years) in kg-CO2 (based on [13]). 

**Figure 2.** Emissions in the entire life cycle of a vehicle (150,000 km, 10 years) in kg-CO2 (based on [13]).

**Figure 3.** The share of primary production by energy source (based on data from [72,73,74,75,76]). 

**Figure 3.** The share of primary production by energy source (based on data from [72,73,74,75,76]).

**Figure 4.** Battery electric life in a circular economy and diagram of decision making in LiBs second life (based on [93,105]). 

**Figure 4.** Battery electric life in a circular economy and diagram of decision making in LiBs second life (based on [93,105]).

**Figure 5.** Battery selected possible applications of used EV batteries (based on [106]). 

**Figure 5.** Battery selected possible applications of used EV batteries (based on [106]).

**Table 1.** The recycling process of Ni-MH and Li-ion batteries [84]. 

**Table 1.** The recycling process of Ni-MH and Li-ion batteries [84].

Nickel–Metal Hydride Battery  
(NI-MH)| Lithium–Ion Battery   
(Li-Ion)  
---|---  
  
  * sorting,
  * draining residual energy,

  
  
  * thermal decomposition of organic components, mainly plastics,
  * extraction metallurgy, i.e., melting and purification of metals,
  * recovery of nickel and iron for use in the production of stainless steel,
  * shipping metal hydride components as slag (low-value material used as road aggregate etc.)

Additional processes: 
  * cadmium oxidation at 760 °C,
  * distillation at 900 °C for 24 h,
  * purification and preparation of Ni-Fe residues.

| 

  * cooling the battery to a temperature of at least −160 °C using liquid nitrogen (lithium, which is explosive at room temperature, is considered relatively safe at this temperature),
  * battery cutting and shredding,
  * separation of shredded material (sorting),
  * lithium conversion to lithium carbonate or lithium oxide,
  * neutralization of electrolytes into stable compounds,
  * cobalt recovery from lithium cobalt oxide (Li CoCO2), if present

  
  
**Table 2.** Advantages and disadvantages of industrial recycling processes involving pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical methods [83,99]. 

**Table 2.** Advantages and disadvantages of industrial recycling processes involving pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical methods [83,99].

| Pyrometallurgy| Hydrometallurgy  
---|---|---  
Advantages| 

  * Recycling of Li-ion batteries representing various compositions/configurations

  
  
  * Pre-treatment is not mandatory
  * High metal recovery

| 

  * High efficiency of metal recovery
  * No emission of toxins into the air
  * High purity of recycled products

  
Disadvantages| 

  * Lithium–iron–phosphate (LFP) batteries are not recyclable
  * High energy intensity (high energy consumption)
  * Purification measures are necessary to prevent toxin emissions into the air
  * Graphite and binders are lost (not recovered)

| 

  * Mechanical pre-treatment is mandatory
  * High water consumption
  * Anode materials are not recyclable

  
  
**Table 3.** Selected LIBs recycling companies and the processes used [81,83,96,97,98,99]. 

**Table 3.** Selected LIBs recycling companies and the processes used [81,83,96,97,98,99].

Method Used | Process/Company Name| State  
---|---|---  
Pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical| Umicore| Belgium  
Mechanical | uRecycle| Sweden  
Electro-hydrometallurgical| AquaMetals| USA  
Hydrometallurgical| Valibat| France  
Hydrometallurgical| Brunp| China  
Mechanical, Hydrometallurgical| Duesenfeld| Germany  
Mechanical, Hydrometallurgical| Retriev| Canada, USA  
  
| **Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note:** The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.  
---|---  
  
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (<https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/>).

## Share and Cite


**MDPI and ACS Style**

Guzek, M.; Jackowski, J.; Jurecki, R.S.; Szumska, E.M.; Zdanowicz, P.; Żmuda, M. Electric Vehicles--An Overview of Current Issues--Part 1--Environmental Impact, Source of Energy, Recycling, and Second Life of Battery. _Energies_ **2024** , _17_ , 249. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010249 

**AMA Style**  


Guzek M, Jackowski J, Jurecki RS, Szumska EM, Zdanowicz P, Żmuda M. Electric Vehicles--An Overview of Current Issues--Part 1--Environmental Impact, Source of Energy, Recycling, and Second Life of Battery. _Energies_. 2024; 17(1):249. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010249 

**Chicago/Turabian Style**  


Guzek, Marek, Jerzy Jackowski, Rafał S. Jurecki, Emilia M. Szumska, Piotr Zdanowicz, and Marcin Żmuda. 2024\. "Electric Vehicles--An Overview of Current Issues--Part 1--Environmental Impact, Source of Energy, Recycling, and Second Life of Battery" _Energies_ 17, no. 1: 249. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010249 

**APA Style**  


Guzek, M., Jackowski, J., Jurecki, R. S., Szumska, E. M., Zdanowicz, P., & Żmuda, M. (2024). Electric Vehicles--An Overview of Current Issues--Part 1--Environmental Impact, Source of Energy, Recycling, and Second Life of Battery. _Energies_ , _17_(1), 249. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010249 

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details [here](https://www.mdpi.com/about/announcements/784). 

## Article Metrics

No

No

### Article Access Statistics

For more information on the journal statistics, click [here](/journal/energies/stats). 

Multiple requests from the same IP address are counted as one view. 

Zoom | Orient  | As Lines  | As Sticks  | As Cartoon  | As Surface  | Previous Scene | Next Scene

## Cite

Export citation file: [BibTeX](javascript:window.document.forms\['export-bibtex'\].submit\(\)) | [EndNote](javascript:window.document.forms\['export-endnote'\].submit\(\)) | [RIS](javascript:window.document.forms\['export-ris'\].submit\(\))

**MDPI and ACS Style**

Guzek, M.; Jackowski, J.; Jurecki, R.S.; Szumska, E.M.; Zdanowicz, P.; Żmuda, M. Electric Vehicles--An Overview of Current Issues--Part 1--Environmental Impact, Source of Energy, Recycling, and Second Life of Battery. _Energies_ **2024** , _17_ , 249. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010249 

**AMA Style**  


Guzek M, Jackowski J, Jurecki RS, Szumska EM, Zdanowicz P, Żmuda M. Electric Vehicles--An Overview of Current Issues--Part 1--Environmental Impact, Source of Energy, Recycling, and Second Life of Battery. _Energies_. 2024; 17(1):249. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010249 

**Chicago/Turabian Style**  


Guzek, Marek, Jerzy Jackowski, Rafał S. Jurecki, Emilia M. Szumska, Piotr Zdanowicz, and Marcin Żmuda. 2024\. "Electric Vehicles--An Overview of Current Issues--Part 1--Environmental Impact, Source of Energy, Recycling, and Second Life of Battery" _Energies_ 17, no. 1: 249. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010249 

**APA Style**  


Guzek, M., Jackowski, J., Jurecki, R. S., Szumska, E. M., Zdanowicz, P., & Żmuda, M. (2024). Electric Vehicles--An Overview of Current Issues--Part 1--Environmental Impact, Source of Energy, Recycling, and Second Life of Battery. _Energies_ , _17_(1), 249. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010249 

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details [here](https://www.mdpi.com/about/announcements/784). 

_clear_

_[Energies](/journal/energies)_ , EISSN 1996-1073, Published by MDPI 

[RSS](/rss/journal/energies) [Content Alert](/journal/energies/toc-alert)

###  Further Information 

[ Article Processing Charges ](/apc) [ Pay an Invoice ](/about/payment) [ Open Access Policy ](/openaccess) [ Contact MDPI ](/about/contact) [ Jobs at MDPI ](https://careers.mdpi.com)

###  Guidelines 

[ For Authors ](/authors) [ For Reviewers ](/reviewers) [ For Editors ](/editors) [ For Librarians ](/librarians) [ For Publishers ](/publishing_services) [ For Societies ](/societies) [ For Conference Organizers ](/conference_organizers)

###  MDPI Initiatives 

[ Sciforum ](https://sciforum.net) [ MDPI Books ](https://www.mdpi.com/books) [ Preprints.org ](https://www.preprints.org) [ Scilit ](https://www.scilit.com) [ SciProfiles ](https://sciprofiles.com?utm_source=mpdi.com&utm_medium=bottom_menu&utm_campaign=initiative) [ Encyclopedia ](https://encyclopedia.pub) [ JAMS ](https://jams.pub) [ Proceedings Series ](/about/proceedings)

###  Follow MDPI 

[ LinkedIn ](https://www.linkedin.com/company/mdpi) [ Facebook ](https://www.facebook.com/MDPIOpenAccessPublishing) [ Twitter ](https://twitter.com/MDPIOpenAccess)

![MDPI](https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/mdpi-pub-logo-white-small.png?71d18e5f805839ab?1740558760)

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals 

Acoustics Acta Microbiologica Hellenica Actuators Adhesives Administrative Sciences Adolescents Advances in Respiratory Medicine Aerobiology Aerospace Agriculture AgriEngineering Agrochemicals Agronomy AI AI Sensors Air Algorithms Allergies Alloys Analytica Analytics Anatomia Anesthesia Research Animals Antibiotics Antibodies Antioxidants Applied Biosciences Applied Mechanics Applied Microbiology Applied Nano Applied Sciences Applied System Innovation AppliedChem AppliedMath Aquaculture Journal Architecture Arthropoda Arts Astronomy Atmosphere Atoms Audiology Research Automation Axioms Bacteria Batteries Behavioral Sciences Beverages Big Data and Cognitive Computing BioChem Bioengineering Biologics Biology Biology and Life Sciences Forum Biomass Biomechanics BioMed Biomedicines BioMedInformatics Biomimetics Biomolecules Biophysica Biosensors Biosphere BioTech Birds Blockchains Brain Sciences Buildings Businesses C Cancers Cardiogenetics Catalysts Cells Ceramics Challenges ChemEngineering Chemistry Chemistry Proceedings Chemosensors Children Chips CivilEng Clean Technologies Climate Clinical and Translational Neuroscience Clinical Bioenergetics Clinics and Practice Clocks & Sleep Coasts Coatings Colloids and Interfaces Colorants Commodities Complexities Complications Compounds Computation Computer Sciences & Mathematics Forum Computers Condensed Matter Conservation Construction Materials Corrosion and Materials Degradation Cosmetics COVID Craniomaxillofacial Trauma & Reconstruction Crops Cryo Cryptography Crystals Current Issues in Molecular Biology Current Oncology Dairy Data Dentistry Journal Dermato Dermatopathology Designs Diabetology Diagnostics Dietetics Digital Disabilities Diseases Diversity DNA Drones Drugs and Drug Candidates Dynamics Earth Ecologies Econometrics Economies Education Sciences Electricity Electrochem Electronic Materials Electronics Emergency Care and Medicine Encyclopedia Endocrines Energies Energy Storage and Applications Eng Engineering Proceedings Entropy Environmental and Earth Sciences Proceedings Environments Epidemiologia Epigenomes European Burn Journal European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education Fermentation Fibers FinTech Fire Fishes Fluids Foods Forecasting Forensic Sciences Forests Fossil Studies Foundations Fractal and Fractional Fuels Future Future Internet Future Pharmacology Future Transportation Galaxies Games Gases Gastroenterology Insights Gastrointestinal Disorders Gastronomy Gels Genealogy Genes Geographies GeoHazards Geomatics Geometry Geosciences Geotechnics Geriatrics Glacies Gout, Urate, and Crystal Deposition Disease Grasses Green Health Hardware Healthcare Hearts Hemato Hematology Reports Heritage Histories Horticulturae Hospitals Humanities Humans Hydrobiology Hydrogen Hydrology Hygiene Immuno Infectious Disease Reports Informatics Information Infrastructures Inorganics Insects Instruments Intelligent Infrastructure and Construction International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health International Journal of Financial Studies International Journal of Molecular Sciences International Journal of Neonatal Screening International Journal of Orofacial Myology and Myofunctional Therapy International Journal of Plant Biology International Journal of Topology International Journal of Translational Medicine International Journal of Turbomachinery, Propulsion and Power International Medical Education Inventions IoT ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information J Journal of Ageing and Longevity Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease Journal of Clinical & Translational Ophthalmology Journal of Clinical Medicine Journal of Composites Science Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy Journal of Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease Journal of Developmental Biology Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Analyses Journal of Eye Movement Research Journal of Functional Biomaterials Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology Journal of Fungi Journal of Imaging Journal of Intelligence Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing Journal of Marine Science and Engineering Journal of Market Access & Health Policy Journal of Mind and Medical Sciences Journal of Molecular Pathology Journal of Nanotheranostics Journal of Nuclear Engineering Journal of Otorhinolaryngology, Hearing and Balance Medicine Journal of Parks Journal of Personalized Medicine Journal of Pharmaceutical and BioTech Industry Journal of Respiration Journal of Risk and Financial Management Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks Journal of the Oman Medical Association Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research Journal of Vascular Diseases Journal of Xenobiotics Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens Journalism and Media Kidney and Dialysis Kinases and Phosphatases Knowledge LabMed Laboratories Land Languages Laws Life Limnological Review Lipidology Liquids Literature Livers Logics Logistics Lubricants Lymphatics Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction Machines Macromol Magnetism Magnetochemistry Marine Drugs Materials Materials Proceedings Mathematical and Computational Applications Mathematics Medical Sciences Medical Sciences Forum Medicina Medicines Membranes Merits Metabolites Metals Meteorology Methane Methods and Protocols Metrics Metrology Micro Microbiology Research Micromachines Microorganisms Microplastics Microwave Minerals Mining Modelling Modern Mathematical Physics Molbank Molecules Multimedia Multimodal Technologies and Interaction Muscles Nanoenergy Advances Nanomanufacturing Nanomaterials NDT Network Neuroglia Neurology International NeuroSci Nitrogen Non-Coding RNA Nursing Reports Nutraceuticals Nutrients Obesities Oceans Onco Optics Oral Organics Organoids Osteology Oxygen Parasitologia Particles Pathogens Pathophysiology Pediatric Reports Pets Pharmaceuticals Pharmaceutics Pharmacoepidemiology Pharmacy Philosophies Photochem Photonics Phycology Physchem Physical Sciences Forum Physics Physiologia Plants Plasma Platforms Pollutants Polymers Polysaccharides Populations Poultry Powders Proceedings Processes Prosthesis Proteomes Psychiatry International Psychoactives Psychology International Publications Purification Quantum Beam Science Quantum Reports Quaternary Radiation Reactions Real Estate Receptors Recycling Regional Science and Environmental Economics Religions Remote Sensing Reports Reproductive Medicine Resources Rheumato Risks Robotics Ruminants Safety Sci Scientia Pharmaceutica Sclerosis Seeds Sensors Separations Sexes Signals Sinusitis Smart Cities Social Sciences Société Internationale d’Urologie Journal Societies Software Soil Systems Solar Solids Spectroscopy Journal Sports Standards Stats Stresses Surfaces Surgeries Surgical Techniques Development Sustainability Sustainable Chemistry Symmetry SynBio Systems Targets Taxonomy Technologies Telecom Textiles Thalassemia Reports Therapeutics Thermo Time and Space Tomography Tourism and Hospitality Toxics Toxins Transplantology Trauma Care Trends in Higher Education Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease Universe Urban Science Uro Vaccines Vehicles Venereology Veterinary Sciences Vibration Virtual Worlds Viruses Vision Waste Water Wild Wind Women World World Electric Vehicle Journal Youth Zoonotic Diseases Subscribe

© 1996-2025 MDPI (Basel, Switzerland) unless otherwise stated 

Disclaimer 

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. 

[ Terms and Conditions ](/about/terms-and-conditions) [ Privacy Policy ](/about/privacy)

We use cookies on our website to ensure you get the best experience.  
Read more about our cookies [here](/about/privacy). 

[Accept](/accept_cookies)

## Share Link


Copy

_clear_

## Share

https://www.mdpi.com/2624900

_clear_

Back to TopTop


url: http://arxiv.org/abs/2410.04540v2
title: [2410.04540v2] Distribution Grids May Be a Barrier To Residential Electrification
scrape_date: 2025-02-28T08:32:39.294066
content_type: markdown
hash: a812665efbccc1b138a84aa70790f28662b937ddcc67cbe66d5fb5642460d7c3
content:
Skip to main content

[![Cornell University](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/cu/cornell-reduced-white-SMALL.svg)](https://www.cornell.edu/)

We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, [member institutions](https://info.arxiv.org/about/ourmembers.html), and all contributors. [Donate](https://info.arxiv.org/about/donate.html)

[](/IgnoreMe)

[![arxiv logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/arxiv-logo-one-color-white.svg)](/) > [eess](/list/eess/recent) > arXiv:2410.04540v2 

[Help](https://info.arxiv.org/help) | [Advanced Search](https://arxiv.org/search/advanced)

All fields Title Author Abstract Comments Journal reference ACM classification MSC classification Report number arXiv identifier DOI ORCID arXiv author ID Help pages Full text

Search

[![arXiv logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/arxiv-logomark-small-white.svg)](https://arxiv.org/)

[ ![Cornell University Logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/cu/cornell-reduced-white-SMALL.svg) ](https://www.cornell.edu/)

open search

GO

open navigation menu

## quick links

  * [Login](https://arxiv.org/login)
  * [Help Pages](https://info.arxiv.org/help)
  * [About](https://info.arxiv.org/about)



# Electrical Engineering and Systems Science > Systems and Control

**arXiv:2410.04540v2** (eess) 

[Submitted on 6 Oct 2024 ([v1](https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.04540v1)), last revised 21 Dec 2024 (this version, v2)]

# Title:Distribution Grids May Be a Barrier To Residential Electrification

Authors:[Priyadarshan](https://arxiv.org/search/eess?searchtype=author&query=Priyadarshan), [Constance Crozier](https://arxiv.org/search/eess?searchtype=author&query=Crozier,+C), [Kyri Baker](https://arxiv.org/search/eess?searchtype=author&query=Baker,+K), [Kevin Kircher](https://arxiv.org/search/eess?searchtype=author&query=Kircher,+K)

View a PDF of the paper titled Distribution Grids May Be a Barrier To Residential Electrification, by Priyadarshan and Constance Crozier and Kyri Baker and Kevin Kircher

[View PDF](/pdf/2410.04540v2) [HTML (experimental)](https://arxiv.org/html/2410.04540v2)

> Abstract:Replacing fossil-fueled appliances and vehicles with electric alternatives can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution in many settings. However, residential electrification can raise electricity demand beyond the safe limits of electrical infrastructure, increasing the risk of blackouts or requiring grid reinforcement that can be slow and expensive. Here, we estimate the physical and economic impacts on distribution grids of electrifying all housing and personal vehicles in each county of the lower 48 United States. We find that space heating is the main driver of grid impacts, with the coldest regions seeing demand peaks up to five times higher than today's peaks. Accommodating electrification of all housing and personal vehicles could require up to 544 GW of distribution grid reinforcement nationally, at a cost of \$320 to \$720 billion, or \$2,600 to \$5,800 per household (95% confidence intervals). However, demand-side management can mitigate demand peaks, reducing grid reinforcement costs by up to 77%. 

Subjects: |  Systems and Control (eess.SY)  
---|---  
Cite as: | [arXiv:2410.04540](https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.04540) [eess.SY]  
  | (or  [arXiv:2410.04540v2](https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.04540v2) [eess.SY] for this version)   
  |  <https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2410.04540> Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite  
  
## Submission history

From: Kevin Kircher [[view email](/show-email/12f9088f/2410.04540)]   
**[[v1]](/abs/2410.04540v1)** Sun, 6 Oct 2024 16:28:10 UTC (8,422 KB)  
**[v2]** Sat, 21 Dec 2024 16:49:40 UTC (13,636 KB)  


Full-text links:

## Access Paper:

View a PDF of the paper titled Distribution Grids May Be a Barrier To Residential Electrification, by Priyadarshan and Constance Crozier and Kyri Baker and Kevin Kircher

  * [View PDF](/pdf/2410.04540v2)
  * [HTML (experimental)](https://arxiv.org/html/2410.04540v2)
  * [TeX Source](/src/2410.04540v2)
  * [Other Formats](/format/2410.04540v2)



[ ![license icon](https://arxiv.org/icons/licenses/by-4.0.png) view license ](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ "Rights to this article")

Current browse context: 

eess.SY

[< prev](/prevnext?id=2410.04540&function=prev&context=eess.SY "previous in eess.SY \(accesskey p\)")   |   [next >](/prevnext?id=2410.04540&function=next&context=eess.SY "next in eess.SY \(accesskey n\)")   


[new](/list/eess.SY/new) |  [recent](/list/eess.SY/recent) | [2024-10](/list/eess.SY/2024-10)

Change to browse by: 

[cs](/abs/2410.04540?context=cs)  
[cs.SY](/abs/2410.04540?context=cs.SY)  
[eess](/abs/2410.04540?context=eess)  


### References & Citations

  * [NASA ADS](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/arXiv:2410.04540)
  * [Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?arxiv_id=2410.04540)
  * [Semantic Scholar](https://api.semanticscholar.org/arXiv:2410.04540)



[a](/static/browse/0.3.4/css/cite.css) export BibTeX citation Loading...

## BibTeX formatted citation

×

loading...

Data provided by: 

### Bookmark

[ ![BibSonomy logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/social/bibsonomy.png) ](http://www.bibsonomy.org/BibtexHandler?requTask=upload&url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.04540&description=Distribution Grids May Be a Barrier To Residential Electrification "Bookmark on BibSonomy") [ ![Reddit logo](/static/browse/0.3.4/images/icons/social/reddit.png) ](https://reddit.com/submit?url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.04540&title=Distribution Grids May Be a Barrier To Residential Electrification "Bookmark on Reddit")

Bibliographic Tools

# Bibliographic and Citation Tools

Bibliographic Explorer Toggle

Bibliographic Explorer _([What is the Explorer?](https://info.arxiv.org/labs/showcase.html#arxiv-bibliographic-explorer))_

Connected Papers Toggle

Connected Papers _([What is Connected Papers?](https://www.connectedpapers.com/about))_

Litmaps Toggle

Litmaps _([What is Litmaps?](https://www.litmaps.co/))_

scite.ai Toggle

scite Smart Citations _([What are Smart Citations?](https://www.scite.ai/))_

Code, Data, Media

# Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article

alphaXiv Toggle

alphaXiv _([What is alphaXiv?](https://alphaxiv.org/))_

Links to Code Toggle

CatalyzeX Code Finder for Papers _([What is CatalyzeX?](https://www.catalyzex.com))_

DagsHub Toggle

DagsHub _([What is DagsHub?](https://dagshub.com/))_

GotitPub Toggle

Gotit.pub _([What is GotitPub?](http://gotit.pub/faq))_

Huggingface Toggle

Hugging Face _([What is Huggingface?](https://huggingface.co/huggingface))_

Links to Code Toggle

Papers with Code _([What is Papers with Code?](https://paperswithcode.com/))_

ScienceCast Toggle

ScienceCast _([What is ScienceCast?](https://sciencecast.org/welcome))_

Demos

# Demos

Replicate Toggle

Replicate _([What is Replicate?](https://replicate.com/docs/arxiv/about))_

Spaces Toggle

Hugging Face Spaces _([What is Spaces?](https://huggingface.co/docs/hub/spaces))_

Spaces Toggle

TXYZ.AI _([What is TXYZ.AI?](https://txyz.ai))_

Related Papers

# Recommenders and Search Tools

Link to Influence Flower

Influence Flower _([What are Influence Flowers?](https://influencemap.cmlab.dev/))_

Core recommender toggle

CORE Recommender _([What is CORE?](https://core.ac.uk/services/recommender))_

  * Author
  * Venue
  * Institution
  * Topic



About arXivLabs 

# arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators

arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website.

Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them.

Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? [**Learn more about arXivLabs**](https://info.arxiv.org/labs/index.html).

[Which authors of this paper are endorsers?](/auth/show-endorsers/2410.04540) | [Disable MathJax](javascript:setMathjaxCookie\(\)) ([What is MathJax?](https://info.arxiv.org/help/mathjax.html)) 

  * [About](https://info.arxiv.org/about)
  * [Help](https://info.arxiv.org/help)



  * contact arXivClick here to contact arXiv [ Contact](https://info.arxiv.org/help/contact.html)
  * subscribe to arXiv mailingsClick here to subscribe [ Subscribe](https://info.arxiv.org/help/subscribe)



  * [Copyright](https://info.arxiv.org/help/license/index.html)
  * [Privacy Policy](https://info.arxiv.org/help/policies/privacy_policy.html)



  * [Web Accessibility Assistance](https://info.arxiv.org/help/web_accessibility.html)
  * [arXiv Operational Status ](https://status.arxiv.org)  
Get status notifications via [email](https://subscribe.sorryapp.com/24846f03/email/new) or [slack](https://subscribe.sorryapp.com/24846f03/slack/new)


url: https://www.carbonbrief.org/factcheck-how-electric-vehicles-help-to-tackle-climate-change/
title: Factcheck: How electric vehicles help to tackle climate change
scrape_date: 2025-02-28T08:32:39.388078
content_type: markdown
hash: 2dd56a3c46c704e0a18324654ba227d51d889db76c3531e2be64d8a7936018c1
content:
#### Sections

  * [Science](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/science/)
    * [Climate modelling](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/science/climate-modelling/)
    * [Extreme weather](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/science/extreme-weather/)
    * [Health and Security](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/science/health-and-security/)
    * [Ice](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/science/ice/)
    * [IPCC](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/science/ipcc/)
    * [Nature](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/science/nature/)
    * [Oceans](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/science/oceans/)
    * [People](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/science/people/)
    * [Temperature](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/science/temperature/)
  * [Energy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/energy/)
    * [China energy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/energy/china-energy/)
    * [Coal](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/energy/coal/)
    * [Emissions](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/energy/emissions/)
    * [Nuclear](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/energy/nuclear/)
    * [Oil and gas](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/energy/oil-and-gas/)
    * [Other technologies](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/energy/other-technologies/)
    * [Renewables](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/energy/renewables/)
    * [Technology](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/energy/technology/)
  * [Policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/policy/)
    * [China Policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/policy/china-policy/)
    * [EU policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/policy/eu-policy/)
    * [International policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/policy/international-policy/)
    * [Other national policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/policy/other-national-policy/)
    * [Rest of world policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/policy/rest-of-world-policy/)
    * [UK policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/policy/uk-policy/)
    * [UN climate talks](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/policy/un-climate-talks/)
    * [US Policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/policy/us-policy/)
  * [In Focus](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/in-focus/)
    * [Country profiles](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/in-focus/country-profiles/)
    * [DeBriefed](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/in-focus/debriefed/)
    * [Explainers](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/in-focus/explainers/)
    * [Factchecks](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/in-focus/factchecks/)
    * [Features](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/in-focus/features/)
    * [Guest posts](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/in-focus/guest-posts/)
    * [Infographics](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/in-focus/infographics/)
    * [Interviews](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/in-focus/interviews/)
    * [Media analysis](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/in-focus/media-analysis/)
    * [State of the climate](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/in-focus/state-of-the-climate/)
    * [Translations](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/in-focus/translations/)
    * [Webinars](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/in-focus/webinars/)
  * [Daily Brief](https://www.carbonbrief.org/daily-brief/un-talks-end-in-rome-with-nations-backing-200bn-a-year-plan-to-protect-nature/)



#### MENU

  * [About us](https://www.carbonbrief.org/about-us/)
  * [China Briefing](https://www.carbonbrief.org/china-briefing/)
  * [Comments Policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/comments-policy/)
  * [Contact Us](https://www.carbonbrief.org/contact-us/)
  * [Cookies Policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/cookies/)
  * [Cropped](https://www.carbonbrief.org/cropped/)
  * [Daily Brief](https://www.carbonbrief.org/daily-brief/)
  * [DeBriefed](https://www.carbonbrief.org/debriefed/)
  * [Energy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/)
    * [Coal](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/coal/)
    * [Emissions](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/emissions/)
      * [Global emissions](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/emissions/global-emissions/)
      * [Rest of world emissions](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/emissions/rest-of-world-emissions/)
      * [UK emissions](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/emissions/uk-emissions/)
    * [EU emissions](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/eu-emissions/)
    * [Nuclear](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/nuclear/)
    * [Oil and gas](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/oil-and-gas/)
    * [Renewables](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/renewables/)
    * [Technology](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/technology/)
    * [China energy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/china-energy/)
  * [Global South Climate Database](https://www.carbonbrief.org/global-south-climate-database/)
  * [Home](https://www.carbonbrief.org/)
  * [In focus](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/)
    * [Country profiles](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/country-profiles/)
    * [Explainers](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/explainers/)
    * [Factchecks](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/factchecks/)
    * [Features](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/features/)
    * [Guest posts](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/guest-posts/)
    * [Infographics](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/infographics/)
    * [Interviews](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/interviews/)
    * [Media analysis](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/media-analysis/)
    * [State of the climate](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/state-of-the-climate/)
    * [Translations](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/translations/)
    * [Webinars](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/webinars/)
  * [Nature](https://www.carbonbrief.org/nature/)
    * [Food and farming](https://www.carbonbrief.org/nature/food-and-farming/)
    * [Nature policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/nature/nature-policy/)
      * [COP16 Cali](https://www.carbonbrief.org/nature/nature-policy/cop16-cali/)
    * [Plants and forests](https://www.carbonbrief.org/nature/plants-and-forests/)
    * [Wildlife](https://www.carbonbrief.org/nature/wildlife/)
  * [Newsletters](https://www.carbonbrief.org/newsletter-sign-up-old/)
  * [Newsletters](https://www.carbonbrief.org/newsletter-sign-up/)
  * [Policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/)
    * [China Policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/china-policy/)
    * [EU policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/eu-policy/)
    * [International policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/international-policy/)
    * [Rest of world policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/rest-of-world-policy/)
    * [UK policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/uk-policy/)
    * [UN climate talks](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/)
      * [COP21 Paris](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop21-paris/)
      * [COP22 Marrakech](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop22-marrakech/)
      * [COP23 Bonn](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop23-bonn/)
      * [COP24 Katowice](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop24-katowice/)
      * [COP25 Madrid](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop25-madrid/)
      * [COP26 Glasgow](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop26-glasgow/)
      * [COP27 Sharm el-Sheikh](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop27-sharm-el-sheikh/)
      * [COP28 Dubai](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop28-dubai/)
      * [COP29 Baku](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop29-baku/)
    * [US Policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/us-policy/)
  * [Privacy Policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/privacy/)
  * [Science](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/)
    * [Climate modelling](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/climate-modelling/)
    * [Extreme weather](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/)
      * [Attribution](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/attribution/)
      * [Drought](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/drought/)
      * [El Niño](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/el-nino/)
      * [Floods](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/floods/)
      * [Heatwaves](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/heatwaves/)
      * [Storms](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/storms/)
      * [Wildfires](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/wildfires/)
    * [Geoengineering](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/geoengineering/)
    * [Ice](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/ice/)
      * [Antarctic](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/ice/antarctic/)
      * [Arctic](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/ice/arctic/)
      * [Glaciers](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/ice/glaciers/)
      * [Sea ice](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/ice/sea-ice/)
    * [IPCC](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/ipcc/)
    * [Oceans](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/oceans/)
      * [Marine life](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/oceans/marine-life/)
      * [Ocean acidification](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/oceans/ocean-acidification/)
      * [Ocean warming](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/oceans/ocean-warming/)
      * [Sea level rise](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/oceans/sea-level-rise/)
    * [People](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/people/)
      * [Human security](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/people/human-security/)
      * [Public health](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/people/public-health/)
      * [Public opinion](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/people/public-opinion/)
      * [Risk and adaptation](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/people/risk-and-adaptation/)
      * [Science communication](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/people/science-communication/)
    * [Temperature](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/)
      * [1.5C](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/1-5c/)
      * [Carbon budgets](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/carbon-budgets/)
      * [Climate sensitivity](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/climate-sensitivity/)
      * [GHGs and aerosols](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/ghgs-and-aerosols/)
      * [Global temperature](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/global-temperature/)
      * [Hiatus](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/hiatus/)
      * [Negative emissions](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/negative-emissions/)
      * [Rest of world temperature](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/rest-of-world-temperature/)
      * [Tipping points](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/tipping-points/)
      * [UK temperature](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/uk-temperature/)
  * [Search](https://www.carbonbrief.org/search/)
  * [Support us](https://www.carbonbrief.org/support-us/)
  * [Thank you for subscribing](https://www.carbonbrief.org/thank-you-for-subscribing/)



##### Social Channels

  * [__Facebook](https://www.facebook.com/carbonbrief)
  * [__Twitter](https://twitter.com/carbonbrief)
  * [__LinkedIn](https://www.linkedin.com/company/carbon-brief)
  * [__Instagram](https://www.instagram.com/carbonbrief)
  * [__Youtube](https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCiXgvmQ2jUgUjRpJzvga5Tg/videos)
  * [__Rss](https://www.carbonbrief.org/feed/)



#### SEARCH ARCHIVE

  *   * #### Type

All Types Articles Daily Brief
  * #### Topic

All Items 1.5C Antarctic Arctic Attribution Carbon budgets China Briefing China energy China Policy Climate modelling Climate sensitivity Coal COP16 Cali COP21 Paris COP22 Marrakech COP23 Bonn COP24 Katowice COP25 Madrid COP26 Glasgow COP27 Sharm el-Sheikh COP28 Dubai COP29 Baku Country profiles Cropped DeBriefed Drought El Niño Emissions Energy EU emissions EU policy Explainers Extreme weather Factchecks Features Floods Food and farming Geoengineering GHGs and aerosols Glaciers Global emissions Global temperature Guest posts Health and Security Heatwaves Hiatus Human security Ice In Focus Infographics International policy Interviews IPCC Land and soils Marine life Media analysis Nature Nature policy Nature-2 Negative emissions Nuclear Ocean acidification Ocean warming Oceans Oil and gas Other national policy Other technologies People Plants and forests Policy Public health Public opinion Renewables Rest of world emissions Rest of world policy Rest of world temperature Risk and adaptation Science Science communication Sea ice Sea level rise State of the climate Storms Technology Temperature Tipping points Translations UK emissions UK policy UK temperature UN climate talks US Policy Webinars Wildfires Wildlife
  * #### Sort

Sort Results By Title (Deecending) Title (Ascending)
  * 


![](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/themes/carbonbrief/assets/images/icon-hamburger.svg)

[ ![](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/themes/carbonbrief/images/logo.png) ](https://www.carbonbrief.org)

  * [Science](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/)
    * [Climate modelling](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/climate-modelling/)
    * [Extreme weather](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/)
      * [Attribution](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/attribution/)
      * [Drought](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/drought/)
      * [El Niño](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/el-nino/)
      * [Floods](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/floods/)
      * [Heatwaves](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/heatwaves/)
      * [Storms](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/storms/)
      * [Wildfires](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/wildfires/)
    * [Ice](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/ice/)
      * [Antarctic](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/ice/antarctic/)
      * [Arctic](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/ice/arctic/)
      * [Glaciers](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/ice/glaciers/)
      * [Sea ice](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/ice/sea-ice/)
    * [IPCC](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/ipcc/)
    * [Oceans](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/oceans/)
      * [Marine life](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/oceans/marine-life/)
      * [Ocean acidification](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/oceans/ocean-acidification/)
      * [Ocean warming](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/oceans/ocean-warming/)
      * [Sea level rise](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/oceans/sea-level-rise/)
    * [People](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/people/)
      * [Human security](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/people/human-security/)
      * [Public health](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/people/public-health/)
      * [Public opinion](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/people/public-opinion/)
      * [Risk and adaptation](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/people/risk-and-adaptation/)
      * [Science communication](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/people/science-communication/)
    * [Temperature](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/)
      * [Hiatus](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/hiatus/)
      * [1.5C](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/1-5c/)
      * [Carbon budgets](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/carbon-budgets/)
      * [Climate sensitivity](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/climate-sensitivity/)
      * [Geoengineering](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/geoengineering/)
      * [GHGs and aerosols](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/ghgs-and-aerosols/)
      * [Global temperature](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/global-temperature/)
      * [Negative emissions](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/negative-emissions/)
      * [Rest of world temperature](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/rest-of-world-temperature/)
      * [Tipping points](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/tipping-points/)
      * [UK temperature](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/uk-temperature/)
    * [Global South Climate Database](https://www.carbonbrief.org/global-south-climate-database/)
  * [Energy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/)
    * [Coal](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/coal/)
    * [Emissions](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/emissions/)
      * [EU emissions](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/eu-emissions/)
      * [Global emissions](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/emissions/global-emissions/)
      * [Rest of world emissions](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/emissions/rest-of-world-emissions/)
      * [UK emissions](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/emissions/uk-emissions/)
    * [Nuclear](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/nuclear/)
    * [Oil and gas](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/oil-and-gas/)
    * [Renewables](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/renewables/)
    * [Technology](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/technology/)
  * [Policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/)
    * [China Policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/china-policy/)
    * [EU policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/eu-policy/)
    * [International policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/international-policy/)
    * [Rest of world policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/rest-of-world-policy/)
    * [UK policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/uk-policy/)
    * [UN climate talks](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/)
      * [COP21 Paris](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop21-paris/)
      * [COP22 Marrakech](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop22-marrakech/)
      * [COP23 Bonn](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop23-bonn/)
      * [COP24 Katowice](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop24-katowice/)
      * [COP25 Madrid](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop25-madrid/)
      * [COP26 Glasgow](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop26-glasgow/)
      * [COP27 Sharm el-Sheikh](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop27-sharm-el-sheikh/)
      * [COP28 Dubai](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop28-dubai/)
      * [COP29 Baku](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop29-baku/)
    * [US Policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/us-policy/)
  * [Nature](https://www.carbonbrief.org/nature/)
    * [Nature policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/nature/nature-policy/)
      * [COP16 Cali](https://www.carbonbrief.org/nature/nature-policy/cop16-cali/)
    * [Food and farming](https://www.carbonbrief.org/nature/food-and-farming/)
    * [Plants and forests](https://www.carbonbrief.org/nature/plants-and-forests/)
    * [Wildlife](https://www.carbonbrief.org/nature/wildlife/)
  * [In focus](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/)
    * [Country profiles](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/country-profiles/)
    * [Explainers](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/explainers/)
    * [Factchecks](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/factchecks/)
    * [Features](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/features/)
    * [Guest posts](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/guest-posts/)
    * [Infographics](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/infographics/)
    * [Interviews](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/interviews/)
    * [Media analysis](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/media-analysis/)
    * [Translations](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/translations/)
    * [Webinars](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/webinars/)
  * [Daily Brief](https://www.carbonbrief.org/daily-brief/)



__ Subscribe __

__

  * [Science](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/)
    * [Climate modelling](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/climate-modelling/)
    * [Extreme weather](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/)
      * [Attribution](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/attribution/)
      * [Drought](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/drought/)
      * [El Niño](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/el-nino/)
      * [Floods](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/floods/)
      * [Heatwaves](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/heatwaves/)
      * [Storms](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/storms/)
      * [Wildfires](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/extreme-weather/wildfires/)
    * [Ice](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/ice/)
      * [Antarctic](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/ice/antarctic/)
      * [Arctic](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/ice/arctic/)
      * [Glaciers](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/ice/glaciers/)
      * [Sea ice](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/ice/sea-ice/)
    * [IPCC](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/ipcc/)
    * [Oceans](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/oceans/)
      * [Marine life](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/oceans/marine-life/)
      * [Ocean acidification](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/oceans/ocean-acidification/)
      * [Ocean warming](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/oceans/ocean-warming/)
      * [Sea level rise](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/oceans/sea-level-rise/)
    * [People](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/people/)
      * [Human security](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/people/human-security/)
      * [Public health](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/people/public-health/)
      * [Public opinion](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/people/public-opinion/)
      * [Risk and adaptation](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/people/risk-and-adaptation/)
      * [Science communication](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/people/science-communication/)
    * [Temperature](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/)
      * [Hiatus](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/hiatus/)
      * [1.5C](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/1-5c/)
      * [Carbon budgets](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/carbon-budgets/)
      * [Climate sensitivity](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/climate-sensitivity/)
      * [Geoengineering](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/geoengineering/)
      * [GHGs and aerosols](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/ghgs-and-aerosols/)
      * [Global temperature](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/global-temperature/)
      * [Negative emissions](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/negative-emissions/)
      * [Rest of world temperature](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/rest-of-world-temperature/)
      * [Tipping points](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/tipping-points/)
      * [UK temperature](https://www.carbonbrief.org/science/temperature/uk-temperature/)
    * [Global South Climate Database](https://www.carbonbrief.org/global-south-climate-database/)
  * [Energy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/)
    * [Coal](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/coal/)
    * [Emissions](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/emissions/)
      * [EU emissions](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/eu-emissions/)
      * [Global emissions](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/emissions/global-emissions/)
      * [Rest of world emissions](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/emissions/rest-of-world-emissions/)
      * [UK emissions](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/emissions/uk-emissions/)
    * [Nuclear](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/nuclear/)
    * [Oil and gas](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/oil-and-gas/)
    * [Renewables](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/renewables/)
    * [Technology](https://www.carbonbrief.org/energy/technology/)
  * [Policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/)
    * [China Policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/china-policy/)
    * [EU policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/eu-policy/)
    * [International policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/international-policy/)
    * [Rest of world policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/rest-of-world-policy/)
    * [UK policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/uk-policy/)
    * [UN climate talks](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/)
      * [COP21 Paris](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop21-paris/)
      * [COP22 Marrakech](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop22-marrakech/)
      * [COP23 Bonn](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop23-bonn/)
      * [COP24 Katowice](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop24-katowice/)
      * [COP25 Madrid](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop25-madrid/)
      * [COP26 Glasgow](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop26-glasgow/)
      * [COP27 Sharm el-Sheikh](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop27-sharm-el-sheikh/)
      * [COP28 Dubai](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop28-dubai/)
      * [COP29 Baku](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/un-climate-talks/cop29-baku/)
    * [US Policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/policy/us-policy/)
  * [Nature](https://www.carbonbrief.org/nature/)
    * [Nature policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/nature/nature-policy/)
      * [COP16 Cali](https://www.carbonbrief.org/nature/nature-policy/cop16-cali/)
    * [Food and farming](https://www.carbonbrief.org/nature/food-and-farming/)
    * [Plants and forests](https://www.carbonbrief.org/nature/plants-and-forests/)
    * [Wildlife](https://www.carbonbrief.org/nature/wildlife/)
  * [In focus](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/)
    * [Country profiles](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/country-profiles/)
    * [Explainers](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/explainers/)
    * [Factchecks](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/factchecks/)
    * [Features](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/features/)
    * [Guest posts](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/guest-posts/)
    * [Infographics](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/infographics/)
    * [Interviews](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/interviews/)
    * [Media analysis](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/media-analysis/)
    * [Translations](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/translations/)
    * [Webinars](https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-focus/webinars/)
  * [Daily Brief](https://www.carbonbrief.org/daily-brief/)



![A car transporter carries new Tesla Model 3 vehicles along the highway, California, US. Credit: Andrei Stanescu / Alamy Stock Photo. R6HR26](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/tesla-transport-electric-vehicles-1550x804.jpg)

A car transporter carries new Tesla Model 3 vehicles along the highway, California, US.  [Credit: Andrei Stanescu / Alamy Stock Photo.](https://www.alamy.com/december-2-2018-gilroy-ca-usa-car-transporter-carries-tesla-model-3-new-vehicles-along-the-highway-back-view-of-the-trailer-image227813998.html?imageid=E60715E4-BAEE-4799-8751-28F46F73F246&p=1313754&pn=1&searchId=9b4a63bbe6755d138ef3c700f3e340be&searchtype=0)

[FACTCHECKS](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/in-focus/factchecks/)

13 May 2019 __17:01

# Factcheck: How electric vehicles help to tackle climate change

  * [ ![Facebook icon](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/themes/carbonbrief/images/icons/facebook.svg) ](https://www.facebook.com/sharer?u=https://www.carbonbrief.org/factcheck-how-electric-vehicles-help-to-tackle-climate-change/&t=Factcheck: How electric vehicles help to tackle climate change)
  * [ ![Twitter icon](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/themes/carbonbrief/images/icons/twitter.svg) ](https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=Factcheck%3A+How+electric+vehicles+help+to+tackle+climate+change&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.carbonbrief.org%2Ffactcheck-how-electric-vehicles-help-to-tackle-climate-change%2F)
  * [ ![LinkedIn icon](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/themes/carbonbrief/images/icons/linkedin.svg) ](https://www.linkedin.com/cws/share?url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/factcheck-how-electric-vehicles-help-to-tackle-climate-change/)
  * [ ![WhatsApp icon](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/themes/carbonbrief/images/icons/whatsapp.svg) ](whatsapp://send?text=https://www.carbonbrief.org/factcheck-how-electric-vehicles-help-to-tackle-climate-change/)



![](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/zeke-thumbnai-300x300.jpg)

#### [Zeke Hausfather](https://www.carbonbrief.org/author/zekehausfather/)

05.13.19

![](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/zeke-thumbnai-300x300.jpg)

#### [Zeke Hausfather](https://www.carbonbrief.org/author/zekehausfather/)

13.05.2019 | 5:01pm

[Factchecks](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/in-focus/factchecks/)Factcheck: How electric vehicles help to tackle climate change

  * [__](https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=https://www.carbonbrief.org/factcheck-how-electric-vehicles-help-to-tackle-climate-change/)
  * [__](https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=Factcheck%3A+How+electric+vehicles+help+to+tackle+climate+change&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.carbonbrief.org%2Ffactcheck-how-electric-vehicles-help-to-tackle-climate-change%2F)
  * [__](https://www.linkedin.com/cws/share?url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/factcheck-how-electric-vehicles-help-to-tackle-climate-change/)

____

_Update 7/2/2020: The lifecycle emissions figures were revised to reflect more recent data on electricity carbon intensity and battery manufacture._

Electric vehicles (EVs) are an important part of meeting global goals on climate change. They [feature prominently](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-018-2262-7) in [mitigation pathways](https://www.carbonbrief.org/qa-how-integrated-assessment-models-are-used-to-study-climate-change) that limit warming to well-below 2C or 1.5C, which would be inline with the [Paris Agreement](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/policy/paris-2015)’s targets.

However, while no greenhouse gas emissions directly come from EVs, they run on electricity that is, in large part, still produced from fossil fuels in many parts of the world. Energy is also used to manufacture the vehicle – and, in particular, the battery.

Here, in response to recent misleading media reports on the topic, Carbon Brief provides a detailed look at the climate impacts of EVs. In this analysis, Carbon Brief finds:

  * EVs are responsible for considerably lower emissions over their lifetime than conventional (internal combustion engine) vehicles across Europe as a whole.
  * In countries with coal-intensive electricity generation, the benefits of EVs are smaller and they can have similar lifetime emissions to the most efficient conventional vehicles – such as hybrid-electric models.
  * However, as countries decarbonise electricity generation to meet their climate targets, driving emissions will fall for existing EVs and manufacturing emissions will fall for new EVs.
  *  In the UK in 2019, the lifetime emissions per kilometre of driving a Nissan Leaf EV were about three times lower than for the average conventional car, even before accounting for the falling carbon intensity of electricity generation during the car's lifetime.

  * Comparisons between electric vehicles and conventional vehicles are complex. They depend on the size of the vehicles, the accuracy of the fuel-economy estimates used, how electricity emissions are calculated, what driving patterns are assumed, and even the weather in regions where the vehicles are used. There is no single estimate that applies everywhere.



There are also large uncertainties around the emissions associated with electric vehicle battery production, with different studies producing widely differing numbers. As battery prices fall and vehicle manufacturers start including larger batteries with longer driving ranges, battery production emissions can have a larger impact on the climate benefits of electric vehicles.

Around half of the emissions from battery production come from the electricity used in manufacturing and assembling the batteries. Producing batteries in regions with relatively low-carbon electricity or in factories powered by renewable energy, as will be the case for the batteries used in the best-selling [Tesla Model 3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_Model_3), can substantially reduce battery emissions.

## Different studies find different results

A [recent working paper](http://www.cesifo-group.de/ifoHome/presse/Pressemitteilungen/Pressemitteilungen-Archiv/2019/Q2/pm_20190417_sd08-Elektroautos.html) from a group of German researchers at the thinktank Institute for Economic Research ([ifo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifo_Institute_for_Economic_Research)) found that “electric vehicles will barely help cut CO2 emissions in Germany over the coming years”. It suggests that, in Germany, “the CO2 emissions of battery-electric vehicles are, in the best case, slightly higher than those of a diesel engine”.

This study was [picked](https://www.ft.com/content/010f4eb2-6765-11e9-a79d-04f350474d62) [up](https://dailycaller.com/2019/04/24/tesla-carbon-dioxide-mercedes/) in the international media, with the Wall Street Journal running an editorial titled, “[Germany’s dirty green cars](https://www.wsj.com/articles/germanys-dirty-green-cars-11556057770)”. It also engendered pushback from electric vehicle advocates, with articles in [Jalopnik](https://jalopnik.com/enough-with-the-actually-electric-cars-pollute-more-bu-1834338565) and [Autoblog](https://www.autoblog.com/2019/05/03/diesel-vs-electric-vehicle-carbon-emissions/), as well as [individual researchers](https://innovationorigins.com/no-diesel-is-not-better-for-the-environment-than-electric/) rebutting the claim.

Other recent studies of electric cars in Germany have reached the opposite conclusion. [One study](https://www.isi.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/isi/dokumente/sustainability-innovation/2019/WP02-2019_Treibhausgasemissionsbilanz_von_Fahrzeugen.pdf) found that emissions from EVs have emissions up to 43% lower than diesel vehicles. [Another](https://www.agora-verkehrswende.de/veroeffentlichungen/klimabilanz-von-elektroautos/) detailed that “in all cases examined, electric cars have lower lifetime climate impacts than those with internal combustion engines”.

These differences arise from the assumptions used by researchers. As Prof [Jeremy Michalek](https://www.cmu.edu/me/ddl/jmichalek/), director of the [Vehicle Electrification Group](https://www.cmu.edu/cit/veg/) at [Carnegie Mellon University](https://www.cmu.edu/), tells Carbon Brief, “which technology comes out on top depends on a lot of things”. These include which specific vehicles are being compared, what electricity grid mix is assumed, if [marginal or average](https://energyathaas.wordpress.com/2012/04/17/marginal-vs-average-generation-the-case-of-the-electric-car/) electricity emissions are used, what driving patterns are assumed, and even the weather.

The figure below, adapted [from an analysis](https://www.theicct.org/publications/EV-battery-manufacturing-emissions) by the International Council for Clean Transportation ([ICCT](http://www.theicct.org/)), shows an estimate of [lifecycle emissions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment) for a typical European conventional (internal combustion engine) car, the hybrid conventional car with the best available fuel economy (a [2019 Toyota Prius Eco](https://www.autoexpress.co.uk/peugeot/208/92157/new-peugeot-208-bluehdi-2015-review)), and a Nissan Leaf electric vehicle for various countries, as well as the EU average. [The Leaf was the [top selling](https://www.greencarcongress.com/2019/01/20190122-leaf.html) EV in Europe in 2018.]

The chart includes tailpipe emissions (grey), emissions from the [fuel cycle](https://greet.es.anl.gov/files/qmanmyv9) (orange) – which includes oil production, transport, refining, and electricity generation – emissions from manufacturing the non-battery components of the vehicle (dark blue) and a conservative estimate of emissions from manufacturing the battery (light blue).

﻿  


In most countries, the majority of emissions over the lifetime of both electric and conventional vehicles come from vehicle operation – tailpipe and fuel cycle – rather than vehicle manufacture. The exception is in countries – Norway or France, for example – where nearly all electricity comes from [near-zero carbon](https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/life-cycle-assessment.html) sources, such as hydroelectric or nuclear power.

However, while the carbon emitted from burning a gallon of petrol or diesel cannot be reduced, the same is not true for electricity. Lifecycle emissions for electric vehicles are much smaller in countries such as France (which gets most of its electricity from nuclear) or Norway (from renewables).

The chart above bases electric-vehicle emissions on the current grid mix in each country. However, if the climate targets set in the [Paris Agreement](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/policy/paris-2015) are to be met, electricity generation will become significantly less carbon-intensive, further increasing the advantage of electric vehicles over conventional ones.

For example, in the UK, emissions from electricity generation [have fallen 38%](https://electricinsights.co.uk/#/reports/report-2018-q4/detail/the-state-of-britains-power-system-in-2018?_k=274yqt) in just the past three years and are expected to fall by more than 70% by the mid-to-late 2020s, which is well within the lifetime of electric vehicles purchased today.

Emissions associated with battery production are taken from the [most recent](https://www.ivl.se/download/18.34244ba71728fcb3f3faf9/1591706083170/C444.pdf) (2019) estimate from the [IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute](https://www.ivl.se/english/startpage/top-menu/about-ivl.html). The Nissan Leaf analysed here has a 40 kilowatt hour (kWh) battery, while the Tesla Model 3 has [both 50kWh or 75kWh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_Model_3) options (a 62kWh option was previously available, but [has been discontinued](https://www.engadget.com/2019/03/17/tesla-drops-mid-range-model-3/)).

The figure below shows the estimated lifecycle emissions from a Model 3 if the battery were produced in Asia – which has a large portion of its electricity generated from coal – as is the case for Nissan Leaf batteries. The long-range 75kWh model is used for this analysis, to mimic the approach in the ifo study; battery-manufacturing emissions from the mid-range 50kWh model would be around a third smaller.

  


Under these assumptions, a Tesla Model 3 would have higher lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions than the best-rated conventional car in Germany, but would still be better for the climate than the average vehicle. In other countries even a long-range Tesla Model 3 would be more lower emissions than any petrol vehicle.

However, the fact that the Tesla batteries are, in fact, [manufactured in Nevada](https://cleantechnica.com/2019/01/28/tesla-model-3-battery-pack-cell-teardown-highlights-performance-improvements/) makes an important difference to this calculation. Lifecycle emissions estimates for batteries produced in the US tend to be notably lower than those produced in Asia, as discussed later in this article.

[Around 50%](http://www.ivl.se/download/18.5922281715bdaebede9559/1496046218976/C243+The+life+cycle+energy+consumption+and+CO2+emissions+from+lithium+ion+batteries+.pdf) of the battery lifecycle emissions come from the electricity used in battery manufacture and assembly, so producing batteries in a plant powered by renewable energy – as will be the case for the Tesla factory – substantially reduces lifetime emissions. The figure below shows Carbon Brief’s estimate of lifecycle emissions from a Tesla Model 3 with batteries produced in the Tesla “[Gigafactory](https://www.tesla.com/en_GB/gigafactory)”.

  


Taking manufacturing conditions into account, a Model 3 with a 75kWh battery from the Nevada Gigafactory results in notably smaller emissions – and has a lifecycle climate impact similar to the estimate for the Nissan Leaf.

Emissions from electricity generation will also vary within countries, with some regions having much cleaner generation mixes (and correspondingly larger climate advantages for EVs) than others.

The figures shown above adjust emissions for both conventional and electric vehicles to [reflect real-world driving conditions](https://www.theicct.org/publications/EV-battery-manufacturing-emissions) rather than [test-cycle](https://www.globalfueleconomy.org/transport/gfei/autotool/approaches/information/test_cycles.asp) numbers. This is important, as official fuel economy estimates [can differ widely](https://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/Lab-to-road-intl_ICCT-white-paper_06112017_vF.pdf) from real-world performance, with large knock-on impacts for the comparison between conventional and electric vehicles.

## Paying back the carbon debt

The analysis in the figures above compares EVs and conventional vehicles over their entire lifetime, based on a total of 150,000km of driving.

However, it's also possible to compare the vehicles over time, to see how long it would take to repay the initial "carbon debt" incurred by the production of a carbon-intensive battery pack for EVs.

For example, as already noted above, a new Nissan Leaf EV bought in the UK in 2019 would have lifetime emissions some three times lower than the average new conventional car.

Looking at this over time, in the figure below, shows that while the battery causes higher emissions during vehicle manufacture in "year zero", this excess carbon debt would be paid back after less than two years of driving.

![Annual global CO2 emissions from fossil fuels and cement as well as from land use, land-use change and forestry](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Screenshot-2021-08-19-at-12.44.29-1024x717.png)

Cumulative greenhouse gas emissions for an average new conventional car versus a new Nissan Leaf. Figures are in lifetime tonnes of CO2-equivalent, assuming 150,000 kilometres driven over a 12-year lifetime. EV fuel cycle emissions based on the UK electricity carbon intensity in 2019 for year one and gradual improvement towards a 2030 target of 100gCO2/kWh and beyond. Chart by Carbon Brief using [Highcharts](https://www.highcharts.com/).<br />

The chart above shows that the difference in use-phase emissions is relatively large, with the EV saving some two to three tonnes of CO2 equivalent each year in the UK. (The figure falls over time as the electricity mix gets cleaner).

This means that even if a new EV replaces an existing conventional car, it would still start to cut emissions after less than four years of use compared to continuing to run the older vehicle, as shown in the chart below.&lt;br />

![Annual global CO2 emissions from fossil fuels and cement as well as from land use, land-use change and forestry](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Screenshot-2021-08-19-at-12.44.38-1024x720.png) Cumulative greenhouse gas emissions for a new Nissan Leaf versus an existing conventional car, with CO2 output for the existing car generously assumed to be equivalent to the average new car in 2019. Figures are in cumulative tonnes of CO2-equivalent, assuming both cars drive 150,000 kilometres over a 12-year lifetime, during which neither vehicle is replaced despite the older age of the existing conventional car. EV fuel cycle emissions based on the UK electricity carbon intensity in 2019 for year one and gradual improvement towards a 2030 target of 100gCO2/kWh and beyond. Chart by Carbon Brief using [Highcharts](https://www.highcharts.com/). 

This equation would become even clearer were it not for the generous assumption that the existing conventional car has emissions equal to the average new vehicle.

Note that the cumulative lifetime emissions charts above are based on mileage of 150,000km over 12 years, or some 7,800 miles per year, for consistency with the remainder of the article.

This figure is slightly higher than the UK average annual mileage, which fell [closer to 7,100 miles](https://www.theguardian.com/money/2019/jan/14/average-uk-car-mileage-falls-again-on-back-of-higher-petrol-prices) in 2017. Even at this lower mileage, however, replacing an existing conventional car with an EV would start cutting emissions within just over four years.

## Problematic fuel economy estimates

The [ifo study](http://www.cesifo-group.de/ifoHome/presse/Pressemitteilungen/Pressemitteilungen-Archiv/2019/Q2/pm_20190417_sd08-Elektroautos.html) provides an example of the potential pitfalls of using test-cycle fuel economy values instead of real-world performance. The study compared the lifetime emissions from a [Mercedes C 220](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_C-Class) to the new Tesla Model 3, taking into account emissions associated with vehicle production. It found that the Tesla had emissions between 90% and 125% of the Mercedes over the lifetime of the vehicle.

In other words, despite the headlines it generated, even ifo found that EVs ranged from being slightly better to somewhat worse than a diesel vehicle.

The study assumed a fuel economy of 52 miles per gallon (mpg) for the Mercedes, which is significantly higher than the average car [in the US](https://www.epa.gov/automotive-trends/highlights-automotive-trends-report) (25mpg for petrol vehicles), but similar to average fuel economy [in the UK](https://www.racfoundation.org/motoring-faqs/environment#a22) (52mpg for petrol vehicles and 61mpg for diesel vehicles). However, different fuel-economy testing procedures produce quite different results.

While the [US EPA fuel economy](https://www.fueleconomy.gov/) numbers [tend to reflect](https://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/Lab-to-road-intl_ICCT-white-paper_06112017_vF.pdf) actual driving conditions, the [New European Driving Cycle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_European_Driving_Cycle) (NEDC) values used in the EU exaggerate actual vehicle fuel economy by [up to 50%](https://www.racfoundation.org/motoring-faqs/environment#a23) – and [potentially even more](https://www.transportenvironment.org/press/mercedes-greatest-deception-europe%E2%80%99s-car-fuel-economy-history-report) for Mercedes vehicles.

The Tesla Model 3 energy use [assumed in the study](http://www.cesifo-group.de/DocDL/sd-2019-08-sinn-karl-buchal-motoren-2019-04-25.pdf) (241 watt-hours per mile), by contrast, is only 8% smaller than the [EPA estimates](https://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/bymodel/2018_Tesla_Model_3.shtml) of real-world use (260 watt-hours/mile). Using more realistic estimates of fuel economy for the conventional vehicle would have a large effect on the results of the ifo analysis, making the EV option preferable to the conventional vehicle.

## Large differences in battery emissions

Both the [ifo study](http://www.cesifo-group.de/ifoHome/presse/Pressemitteilungen/Pressemitteilungen-Archiv/2019/Q2/pm_20190417_sd08-Elektroautos.html) and the [ICCT analysis](https://www.theicct.org/publications/EV-battery-manufacturing-emissions) rely on the same estimate of emissions from battery manufacturing: [a 2017 study](https://www.ivl.se/download/18.34244ba71728fcb3f3fa2f/1591705755278/C243.pdf) by the Swedish Environmental Research Institute ([IVL](https://www.ivl.se/english/startpage.html)). IVL examined studies published between 2010 and 2016, and concluded that battery manufacturing emissions are likely between 150 and 200 kg CO2-equivalent per kWh of battery capacity.

The majority of studies examined by IVL looked at battery production in Asia, rather than in the US or Europe. The IVL study also noted that battery technology was evolving rapidly and that there is great potential for reduction in manufacturing emissions.

The IVL study came under considerable [criticism](https://cleantechnica.com/2017/06/22/swedish-ev-battery-study-sucks/), and in late 2019 received a [substantial revision](https://www.ivl.se/download/18.34244ba71728fcb3f3faf9/1591706083170/C444.pdf). The IVL researchers now estimate that battery manufacturing emissions are actually between 61 and 106 kg CO2-equivalent per kWh, with an upper bound of 146 kg. The low end estimate of 61 kg is for cases when the energy used from battery manufacturing comes from zero-carbon sources. IVL suggests that this revision was driven by new data for cell production, including more realistic measurements of energy use for commercial-scale battery factories that have substantially expanded in scale and output in recent years.

Carbon Brief undertook its own assessment of the literature to find recently published estimates of lifecycle emissions from battery manufacturing. The figure below shows data from 17 different studies, including seven published after the 2017 IVL estimate. It divides studies based on the region in which the batteries were produced: Asia (in red), Europe (light blue), US (dark blue) and reviews that examine multiple regions (grey).

﻿  


Most of the studies published in recent years show lifecycle emissions smaller than those in the original IVL study, with an average of around 100kg CO2 per kWh for those published after 2017. These new estimates are well in-line with the revised 2019 IVL study numbers. Manufacturing emission estimates are generally higher in Asia than in Europe or the US, reflecting the widespread use of coal for electricity generation in the region. Studies that directly compared batteries manufactured in Asia to those in the US or Europe found lifecycle emissions around 20% lower outside of Asia.

A number of studies break down emissions into mining, refining and other material production that happens off-site, as well as the actual manufacturing process where the battery is assembled. These tend to find that about half the lifecycle emissions are a result of off-site material production and half result from electricity used in the manufacturing process. This is shown in the table below, taken from the 2017 IVL report, which breaks down lifecycle emissions by component and manufacturing stage.

[![Lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions from battery manufacture by component and manufacturing stage in kg CO2-equivalent per kWh battery capacity. Table 19 from Romare & Dahllof 2017. ](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/LCA-Table-1024x686.jpg)](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/LCA-Table.jpg)Lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions from battery manufacture by component and manufacturing stage in kg CO2-equivalent per kWh battery capacity. Table 19 from [Romare & Dahllof 2017](http://www.ivl.se/download/18.5922281715bdaebede9559/1496046218976/C243+The+life+cycle+energy+consumption+and+CO2+emissions+from+lithium+ion+batteries+.pdf).

As the [IVL study](https://www.ivl.se/download/18.34244ba71728fcb3f3faf9/1591706083170/C444.pdf) notes:

“Manufacturing stands for a large part of the production impact…This implies that production location and/or electricity mix has great potential to impact the results.”

This is an important factor to consider when estimating battery emissions from Tesla’s Gigafactory in Nevada, which produced all of the batteries currently used in Model 3 vehicles.

Nevada, where Tesla’s Gigafactory is located, has electricity that is, on average, around 30% lower in carbon intensity than the US average. Nevada has phased out nearly all of its coal-based power generation over the past two decades, as shown in the figure below.

[![Nevada electricity generation mix from 2001 through 2017, from the New York Times. ](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Nevada-electricity-generated-2001-to-2017-1024x555.jpg)](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Nevada-electricity-generated-2001-to-2017.jpg)Nevada electricity generation mix from 2001 through 2017, from the [New York Times](https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/12/24/climate/how-electricity-generation-changed-in-your-state.html).

Tesla [recently began construction](https://www.fastcompany.com/90334858/inside-teslas-100-renewable-design-for-the-gigafactory) of the world’s largest solar roof on top of its Gigafactory, which, when coupled with battery storage, should provide nearly all of the electricity used by the facility.

The image below shows the current status of solar panel installation as of 18 April  2019, though the plan is for nearly the entire roof to be covered by panels when the installation is complete.

[![Tesla Gigafactory solar roof installation in-progress as of 18 April 2019. Image from Teslarati.](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Gigafactory-roof-1024x543.jpg)](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Gigafactory-roof.jpg)Tesla Gigafactory solar roof installation in-progress as of 18 April 2019. Image from [Teslarati](https://www.teslarati.com/tesla-gigafactory-1-solar-panels-model-3-battery-production/).

The Gigafactory [was also built](https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1105404_tesla-gigafactory-energy-no-solar-panels-yet-but-no-natural-gas-at-all) with a focus on energy efficiency, employing material reuse when possible. However, it is unclear what the actual energy use and emissions associated with battery production at the site are as Tesla has not released any figures.

Given the lower lifecycle manufacturing emission estimates of studies in recent years – and the location of the manufacturing facility in a state with a relatively low-carbon electricity generation mix – Carbon Brief provides an estimate of 61kg CO2-equivalent per kWh based on the [revised IVL study](https://www.ivl.se/download/18.34244ba71728fcb3f3faf9/1591706083170/C444.pdf).

This is quite similar to a recent estimate for battery production in Germany by the Research Center for Energy Economics ([FFE](https://www.ffe.de/en/)). FFE found that if batteries were produced using renewable energy, as is the goal for the Nevada Gigafactory, emissions would fall down to 62kg CO2-equivalent per kWh.

## How and when electricity is generated matters

The climate benefit of EVs depend not only on the country where an EV is used, but also what region of the country it is used in. In the US, [for example](https://www.epa.gov/energy/emissions-generation-resource-integrated-database-egrid), there is a wide variation in how electricity is generated, with much cleaner electricity in places such as California or New York than in the middle parts of the country.

How the emissions from electricity generation are calculated is also important. While many analyses – including the ones earlier in this article – make use of the average emissions from electricity generation, Michalek tells Carbon Brief that using these values can produce somewhat misleading results.

It would be more accurate to use marginal emissions, Michalek says. This reflects emissions from the power plants turned on to meet new demand from EV charging. He explains:

“Some plants, like nuclear, hydro, wind and solar are generally fully utilised and will not change their generation output if you buy an EV. What changes, at least in the short run, is primarily that coal and natural gas plants will increase generation in response to this new load. So, if your question is ‘what will be the emissions consequences if I buy an EV versus a gasoline vehicle,’ which I think is the right question for policy, then the answer should use the consequential grid mix (for small changes this is the marginal generation mix) rather than the average. The marginal grid mix typically has higher emissions intensity than the average.”

However, the marginal emissions are something of a short-term estimate of EV impacts. As the demand from more EVs is added to the grid, gas and coal resources that are currently not being utilised may increase their output, but over the longer term additional generation sources will come online.

Michalek explains that the impact of EV adoption on future power plant construction is an area of active research.

In 2016, Michalek and colleagues [published a paper](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/044007) in Environmental Research Letters taking into account a whole host of factors – including the marginal grid mix, ambient temperature, patterns of vehicle miles travelled and driving conditions (city versus highway) – in order to make the most accurate possible comparison between EV and similar conventional vehicles at the time.

The figure below shows their results. In the left column, the most efficient petrol vehicle – a Toyota Prius – is compared to one fully electric vehicle – a Nissan Leaf – and two plug-in electric hybrid vehicles – a Chevrolet Volt and a Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid. The right column shows the same analysis, but for a typical conventional vehicle of the same size – a Mazda 3. Each county in the country is colored red if the petrol vehicle has lower emissions and blue if the electric vehicle has lower emissions.

[![Difference in lifecycle emissions in grammes CO2-equivalent per mile driven for selected electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles \(2013 Nissan Leaf BEV, 2013 Chevrolet Volt PHEV, and 2013 Prius PHEV\) relative to selected gasoline vehicles \(2010 Prius HEV and 2014 Mazda 3\). Figure 2 in Yuksel et al 2016.](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/gasoline-vehicles-in-US-Toyota-Prius-Mazda-3-1024x1019.jpg)](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/gasoline-vehicles-in-US-Toyota-Prius-Mazda-3.jpg)Difference in lifecycle emissions in grammes CO2-equivalent per mile driven for selected electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles (2013 Nissan Leaf BEV, 2013 Chevrolet Volt PHEV, and 2013 Prius PHEV) relative to selected gasoline vehicles (2010 Prius HEV and 2014 Mazda 3). Figure 2 in [Yuksel et al 2016](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/044007).

They found that the Nissan Leaf EV is considerably better than a similar typical conventional vehicle outside of parts of the Midwest that rely heavily on coal for marginal emissions. However, when compared to the most efficient conventional vehicle, the climate benefits of the EV were near-zero or negative in large parts of the country.

This study examines the current mix of electricity generation, which will likely become less carbon-intensive over the lifetime of vehicles operating today. However, the authors caution that the relationship between average emission reductions and marginal emission reductions is not always clearcut. Because marginal emissions come primarily from fossil-fuel plants, emission reductions for EV charging will occur mainly when gas displaces coal at the margin, or when widespread EV adoption requires bringing new low-carbon electricity generation facilities online to meet demand.

## Electric vehicles ‘not a panacea’ without decarbonisation

In both the US and Europe, EVs represent a substantial reduction in lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions compared to the average conventional vehicle. This has been a consistent finding across the overwhelming majority of studies examined by Carbon Brief.

However, Michalek cautions that:

“EVs are not currently a panacea for climate change…lifecycle GHG emissions from electric vehicles can be similar to or even greater than the most efficient gasoline or diesel vehicles [in the US].”

As electricity generation becomes less carbon intensive – particularly at the margin – electric vehicles will become preferable to all conventional vehicles in virtually all cases. There are fundamental limitations on how efficient petrol and diesel vehicles can become, whereas low-carbon electricity and increased battery manufacturing efficiency can cut much of the manufacturing emissions and nearly all electricity use emissions from EVs.

A transition from conventional petrol and diesel vehicles to EVs plays a large role in [mitigation pathways](https://www.carbonbrief.org/qa-how-integrated-assessment-models-are-used-to-study-climate-change) that limit warming to meet [Paris Agreement](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/policy/paris-2015) targets. However, it depends on rapid decarbonisation of electricity generation to be effective. If countries do not replace coal and, to a lesser extent, gas, then electric vehicles will still remain far from being “zero emissions”.

## Methodology

US values in the first three figures were estimated by Carbon Brief based on US grid emission factors from [EPA eGRID 2018](https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2020-01/documents/egrid2018_summary_tables.pdf) modified with [Rhodium Group](https://rhg.com/research/preliminary-us-emissions-2019/) estimates for 2019 and electricity fuel cycle estimates from [Michalek et al 2011](https://www.pnas.org/content/108/40/16554). Error bars reflect lifecycle battery manufacturing estimates ranging from 61 to 146kgCO2e per kWh (kgCO2e/kWh) used in the [revised 2019 IVL study](https://www.ivl.se/download/18.34244ba71728fcb3f3faf9/1591706083170/C444.pdf), with its central range being 61-100kgCO2e/kWh.

EU average and per-country grid emissions factors for 2019 were taken from [Sandbag 2020](https://sandbag.org.uk/project/power-2019/). Leaf emissions were based on a 40kWh battery, a fuel economy estimate of [26kWh per 100 miles](https://ev-database.uk/car/1106/Nissan-Leaf) and a conservative top-end central estimate of 100kgCO2/kWh for battery production.

The Peugeot 208 1.6 BlueHDi used in the original [Hall and Lutsey 2018](https://www.theicct.org/publications/EV-battery-manufacturing-emissions) figure was replaced by a 2019 Toyota Prius Eco hybrid car, which is more comparable in size to both the Leaf and Model 3 and has the highest fuel economy of any commercially available car, with a 56 miles per gallon [EPA rating](https://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=41163) – which is similar to the fuel use in [actual driving conditions](https://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/Lab-to-road-intl_ICCT-white-paper_06112017_vF.pdf).

Model 3 emissions were estimated using a fuel economy value of [25kWh per 100 miles](https://ev-database.uk/car/1138/Tesla-Model-3-Long-Range-Dual-Motor) for the long-range 75kWh battery model. Non-battery manufacturing emissions were assumed to be the same as those of the Nissan Leaf used in the [ICCT analysis](https://www.theicct.org/publications/EV-battery-manufacturing-emissions). Battery emissions from the Nevada Gigafactory were assumed to be at the bottom end of the central range from the IVL study – 61kgCO2e/kWh – based on the combination of a zero-carbon generation mix, the widespread use of efficiency measures in manufacturing and the use of on-site renewable energy as discussed in the article.

The following studies were used by Carbon Brief in the battery lifecycle emissions literature review:

Philippot, M. et al. (2019) Eco-Efficiency of a Lithium-Ion Battery for Electric Vehicles: Influence of Manufacturing Country and Commodity Prices on GHG Emissions and Costs, Batteries, doi:10.3390/batteries5010023

Regett, A. et al. (2018) Carbon footprint of electric vehicles - a plea for more objectivity, FFE white paper.

GREET model (2018) The Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation Model, Argonne National Laboratory.

Messagie, M. (2017). Life Cycle Analysis of the Climate Impact of Electric Vehicles, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Transport & Environment white paper.

Han, H. et al (2017). GHG Emissions from the Production of Lithium-Ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles in China, Sustainability, doi:10.3390/su9040504

Romare, M. and Dahllöf, L. (2017) The Life Cycle Energy Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Lithium-Ion Batteries, IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute white paper.

Wolfram, P. and Wiedmann, T. (2017) Electrifying Australian transport: Hybrid life cycle analysis of a transition to electric light-duty vehicles and renewable electricity, Applied Energy, doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.08.219

Wang, Y. et al. (2017) Quantifying the environmental impact of a Li-rich high-capacity cathode material in electric vehicles via life cycle assessment, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, doi:10.1007/s11356-016-7849-9

Ambrose, H. and Kendall, A. (2016) Effects of battery chemistry and performance on the life cycle greenhouse gas intensity of electric mobility. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, doi:10.1016/j.trd.2016.05.009

Dunn, J. et al. (2016) Life Cycle Analysis Summary for Automotive Lithium-Ion Battery Production and Recycling, In: Kirchain R.E. et al. (eds) REWAS 2016. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-48768-7_11

Ellingsen, L. et al. (2016) The size and range effect: lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions of electric vehicles, Environmental Research Letters, doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/5/054010

Kim, H. et al. (2016) Cradle-to-Gate Emissions from a Commercial Electric Vehicle Li-Ion Battery: A Comparative Analysis, Environmental Science & Technology, doi:10.1021/acs.est.6b00830

Peters, J. et al. (2016) The environmental impact of Li-Ion batteries and the role of key parameters – A review, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.08.039

Nealer, R. et al. (2015) Cleaner Cars from Cradle to Grave, Union of Concerned Scientists white paper.

Hart, K. et al. (2013) Application of LifeCycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology: Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles. US EPA report 744-R-12-001.

Dunn, J. et al. (2012) Impact of recycling on cradle-to-gate energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of automotive lithium-ion batteries, Environmental Science & Technology. doi:10.1021/es302420z

Majeau-Bettez, G. et al. (2011) Life Cycle Environmental Assessment of Lithium-Ion and

Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries for Plug-In Hybrid and Battery Electric Vehicles, Environmental Science & Technology. doi:10.1021/es103607c

**Update 6-2-2020:**

This article was updated to include the new battery manufacturing emissions values from the revised 2019 IVL study, replacing the 2017 IVL study values used in the original version of the article.

Sharelines from this story

  * [__](https://www.facebook.com/sharer?u=https://www.carbonbrief.org/factcheck-how-electric-vehicles-help-to-tackle-climate-change/&t=Factcheck: How electric vehicles help to tackle climate change)[__](https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=Factcheck%3A+How+electric+vehicles+help+to+tackle+climate+change&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.carbonbrief.org%2Ffactcheck-how-electric-vehicles-help-to-tackle-climate-change%2F)

Factcheck: How electric vehicles help to tackle climate change 

  * [__](https://www.facebook.com/sharer?u=https://www.carbonbrief.org/factcheck-how-electric-vehicles-help-to-tackle-climate-change/&t=Factcheck: How electric vehicles help to tackle climate change)[__](https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=Factcheck%3A+Electric+vehicles+are+cleaner+than+fossil-fuelled+cars&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.carbonbrief.org%2Ffactcheck-how-electric-vehicles-help-to-tackle-climate-change%2F)

Factcheck: Electric vehicles are cleaner than fossil-fuelled cars 




Comments

View Comments (14) Close Comments

![Close up of newly imported Chinese electric cars, awaiting UK distribution.](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/2R6XC79-270x180.jpg)

####  [ Factcheck: 21 misleading myths about electric vehicles](https://www.carbonbrief.org/factcheck-21-misleading-myths-about-electric-vehicles/)

**[UK policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/policy/uk-policy/)** | 24.10.2023 

Expert analysis direct to your inbox.

Get a round-up of all the important articles and papers selected by Carbon Brief by email. Find out more about our newsletters [here](https://www.carbonbrief.org/newsletter-sign-up).

Get a round-up of all the important articles and papers selected by Carbon Brief by email. Find out more about our newsletters [here](https://www.carbonbrief.org/newsletter-sign-up).

__

![](https://www.carbonbrief.org/wp-content/themes/carbonbrief/images/logoFtr.png)

Published under a [CC license](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode). You are welcome to reproduce unadapted material in full for non-commercial use, credited ‘Carbon Brief’ with a link to the article. Please contact us for commercial use.

#### SECTIONS

  * [Science](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/science/)
  * [Energy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/energy/)
  * [Policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/policy/)
  * [In Focus](https://www.carbonbrief.org/category/in-focus/)
  * [China Briefing](https://www.carbonbrief.org/china-briefing/)
  * [Cropped](https://www.carbonbrief.org/cropped/)



#### ABOUT

  * [About us](https://www.carbonbrief.org/about-us/)
  * [Contact Us](https://www.carbonbrief.org/contact-us/)
  * [Newsletters](https://www.carbonbrief.org/newsletter-sign-up/)
  * [Privacy Policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/privacy/)
  * [Cookie Policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/cookies/)
  * [Comments Policy](https://www.carbonbrief.org/comments-policy/)



#### SOCIAL

  * [BlueSky](https://bsky.app/profile/did:plc:2d6kuvaoa7qi6bq5cwq4isee)
  * [Twitter](https://twitter.com/CarbonBrief)
  * [LinkedIn](https://www.linkedin.com/company/carbon-brief/)
  * [Instagram](https://www.instagram.com/carbonbrief)
  * [YouTube](https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCiXgvmQ2jUgUjRpJzvga5Tg)
  * [Facebook](https://www.facebook.com/carbonbrief)



[__](https://twitter.com/CarbonBrief)[__](https://www.facebook.com/carbonbrief)[__](https://www.instagram.com/carbonbrief)[__](https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCiXgvmQ2jUgUjRpJzvga5Tg)

* * *

Published by Carbon Brief Ltd (C) 2025 \- Company No. 07222041


