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Guide to Drug Therapy for Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms in Patients with Benign Prostatic Obstruction | Drugs
        

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# Guide to Drug Therapy for Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms in Patients with Benign Prostatic Obstruction

Implications for Sexual Dysfunction

  * Review Article
  * Published: 17 September 2012


  * Volume 68, pages 209–229, (2008) 
  * Cite this article



[ ![](https://media.springernature.com/w72/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/40265?as=webp) Drugs ](/journal/40265) [ Aims and scope  ](https://link.springer.com/journal/40265/aims-and-scope) [ Submit manuscript  ](https://www.editorialmanager.com/drua)

  * Serap Gur1, 
  * Philip J. Kadowitz1 &
  * Wayne J. G. Hellstrom M.D., F.A.C.S.1



  * 188 Accesses

  * 15 Citations

  * [Explore all metrics  ](/article/10.2165/00003495-200868020-00005/metrics)




## Abstract

The relationship between erectile dysfunction (ED) and lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) caused by benign prostatic obstruction (BPO) has recently gained increasing attention. Both BPO and ED are highly prevalent in older men and both conditions frequently contribute to a reduction in overall quality of life.

Current medical treatment of LUTS/BPO consists of monotherapy with α1-adrenoceptor antagonists or 5α-reductase inhibitors, a combination of these two agents or, in some cases, various phytotherapeutic approaches. When choosing a drug therapy, it is important to recognize that while 5α-reductase inhibitors increase the risk of ED and ejaculatory disorders, and combined therapy carries the cumulative risk of causing sexual dysfunction, some α1-adrenergic receptor antagonists have been reported to improve overall sexual function. Therefore, the successful evaluation and management of older men with LUTS associated with BPO should include an assessment of baseline sexual function and subsequent monitoring of medication-induced sexual adverse effects.

In this review, we detail the pathophysiological mechanisms involved in LUTS/BPO-associated ED, including reduced nitric oxide/cyclic guanosine monophosphate system activity, enhanced endothelin-1/rhoA/rho kinase pathway activity, sympathetic overactivity, pelvic organ atherosclerosis and potential preventive approaches.

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Serap Gur, Philip J. Kadowitz & Wayne J. G. Hellstrom M.D., F.A.C.S.




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Gur, S., Kadowitz, P.J. & Hellstrom, W.J.G. Guide to Drug Therapy for Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms in Patients with Benign Prostatic Obstruction. _Drugs_ **68** , 209–229 (2008). https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-200868020-00005

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* * *

World J Mens Health. 2013 Dec;31(3):193-207. English.  
Published online Dec 24, 2013.  
<https://doi.org/10.5534/wjmh.2013.31.3.193>

Copyright © 2013 Korean Society for Sexual Medicine and Andrology 

Review

# Urinary Tract Symptoms (LUTS) Secondary to Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) and LUTS/BPH with Erectile Dysfunction in Asian Men: A Systematic Review Focusing on Tadalafil 

Hyun Jun Park,1 Ji Eon Joanne Won,2 Sebastian Sorsaburu,2 Paul David Rivera,3 and Seung Wook Lee4

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  *     * 1Department of Urology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan, Korea.  

    * 2Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, IN, USA.  

    * 3INC Research, Raleigh, NC, USA.  

    * 4Department of Urology, Hanyang University Guri Hospital, Guri, Korea.  


  * Correspondence to: Seung Wook Lee. Department of Urology, Hanyang University Guri Hospital, 153 Gyeongchun-ro, Guri 471-701, Korea. Tel: +82-31-560-2374, Fax: +82-31-560-2372, Email: [swleepark@hanyang.ac.kr](mailto:swleepark@hanyang.ac.kr)




Received October 10, 2013; Revised October 24, 2013; Accepted November 07, 2013.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License ([http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/)) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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## Abstract

This review assesses lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) due to benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) with or without erectile dysfunction (ED) and related therapies focusing on tadalafil. A literature search was obtained and reviewed for the epidemiology, treatment therapies, pathophysiology, and efficacy and safety of phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor (PDE5i) tadalafil in patients with LUTS/BPH. Approximately 42% of men aged 51 to 60 years have BPH. Approximately 90% of men aged 45 to 80 years have LUTS. Occurrence of LUTS increases with age for almost all racial/ethnic groups (range, 32% to 56%) with prevalence of LUTS highest among Hispanic men, then Blacks, Caucasians, and Asians. There is an independent relationship with LUTS/BPH and ED, with approximately 70% of men with LUTS/BPH having ED with severity of one disease often correlating with the other. The European Urological Association guidelines include the use of the PDE5i tadalafil. Tadalafil is the only therapy recommended for treatment of co-existing BPH and ED, while other therapies have unwanted ED side effects. The mode of action of tadalafil may involve different areas of the lower urinary tract such as smooth muscle cell relaxation in the bladder neck, prostate, and urethra, but there may also be resulting modulation of the afferent nerve activity. Tadalafil (5 mg) in Asian men with LUTS/BPH, similar to global studies, is efficacious and safe. Tadalafil (5 mg) improves co-existing LUTS/BPH and ED, independently. Men with LUTS/BPH likely also have ED. Asian men with LUTS/BPH have similar incidence rates, co-existing ED, comorbid diseases, and risks as non-Asian men. Tadalafil can improve co-existing LUTS/BPH and ED.

Keywords

Erectile dysfunction; Pharmacology; Phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitors; Prostatic hyperplasia; Tadalafil

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## INTRODUCTION

Lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) occur in men and women increasingly with age. In men, LUTS is often concurrent with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). BPH is a histologic diagnosis that refers to the proliferation of smooth muscle and epithelial cells within the prostate [1, 2]. The progression of BPH can lead to benign prostatic enlargement (BPE). Men with LUTS secondary to BPH (LUTS/BPH) tend to seek medical attention after symptoms have become disruptive to their quality of life (QoL). LUTS/BPH is generally classified as storage symptoms or voiding symptoms.

The prevalence of LUTS has been shown to increase linearly with age [3, 4].

The pathophysiology of LUTS and its underlying mechanisms are not fully understood but may have similarity with erectile dysfunction (ED) [5], as many patients with LUTS are found to have co-existing ED and vice versa [6]. Men with LUTS/BPH tend to have one or more physiological diagnoses, comorbidities, and/or risk factors.

Approximately 70% of men with LUTS/BPH have co-existing ED. Recent treatment guidelines for LUTS/BPH include the use of several regulatory-approved pharmacologic classes including the phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor (PDE5i) tadalafil (LY450190, Cialis, Adcirca; Eli Lilly, Indianapolis, IN, USA) [7].

Tadalafil is an orally administered, potent, and selective inhibitor of the PDE5 enzyme. Tadalafil (5 to 20 mg dosed as needed; 2.5 mg or 5 mg dose once daily) is approved to treat men with ED in many countries. Tadalafil (40-mg dose once daily) is also approved in many countries under the trade name of Adcirca to treat patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension. Tadalafil (5 mg once daily) is approved under the trade name of Cialis to treat men with LUTS/BPH with or without ED in several areas including the European Union, United States, and Republic of Korea.

This review will provide an update on the epidemiology, co-existing ED, comorbidities, risk factors, guidelines, and current standard of care in patients with LUTS/BPH. We reviewed global data on the mode of action, safety, and efficacy of tadalafil in patients with LUTS/BPH, with specific attention to Korean men and other Asian men.

Literature was obtained via Medline searches with an attempt to include the latest research available. Review articles and relevant reference lists related to LUTS/BPH were reviewed and selected as appropriate on the topics of treatment, epidemiology with or without ED, the mode of action for tadalafil, and the safety and efficacy of tadalafil. Preference was given to randomized, controlled, double-blind clinical trials for efficacy and safety of tadalafil treatment in patients with LUTS/BPH.

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## DEFINITION AND DIAGNOSIS OF LOWER URINARY TRACT SYMPTOMS/BENIGN PROSTATIC HYPERPLASIA AND ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION

The European Association of Urology (EAU) and American Urological Association (AUA) [7] guidelines define LUTS as storage (irritative) symptoms (daytime urinary frequency, urgency, and nocturia), voiding (obstructive) symptoms (straining, weak stream, intermittent stream, and incomplete emptying), or postmicturition symptoms (postmicturition dribbling) that affect the lower urinary tract (LUT) [7, 8].

BPH is a histologic diagnosis that refers to the nonmalignant proliferation of smooth muscle and epithelial cells of the prostate [1, 2]. The exact etiology is unknown. The progression of BPH can lead to BPE, which is determined by the size of the prostate (pathologic). Approximately 50% of men with histologic BPH develop BPE. BPE may eventually cause bladder outlet obstruction (BOO), which is also termed benign prostatic obstruction (BPO) if associated with BPE. BOO and BPO are determined with urodynamic measures. Some patients may present with BPE but not have significant LUTS, while other patients may present with LUTS and have a significant reduction in QoL but not have BPE.

Clinical diagnosis of LUTS/BPH is a multistep process used to eliminate prostate cancer, identify risk factors, and obtain physiological measures. Symptoms of LUTS/BPH are generally assessed using the International Prostate Symptom Score (IPSS) or AUA Prostate Symptom Index (AUA-SI); a transrectal ultrasound of the prostate; the measurement of the maximal urinary flow rate (Qmax) assessed by uroflowmetry; and the measurement of postvoid residual volume assessed by ultrasound, urinalysis, and serum prostate specific antigen (PSA) levels.

The definition of LUTS/BPH used in clinical studies and in the literature varies widely. This paper did not try to standardize the definition of LUTS/BPH. Men with LUTS/BPH have generally been identified histologically with having BPH; with symptom severity assessed by total IPSS as being either mild (0~7), moderate (8~19), or severe (20~35); with the size of the prostate determined (BPE defined as prostate volume ≥20 mL); and with a Qmax of 4 to15 mL/s, which is indicative of BPO.

The IPSS questionnaire is a validated, 7-part, self-administered questionnaire that is used to assess LUTS/BPH severity and response to treatment [9]. The International Index of Erectile Function (IIEF) questionnaire is a validated self-administered patient questionnaire that assesses ED [10] with erectile function assessed via the erectile function domain (IIEF-EF).

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## EPIDEMIOLOGY IN THE GLOBAL POPULATION

### 1\. Incidence

Histologic BPH increases with age and occurs in approximately 8% of men aged 31 to 40 years, 42% of men aged 51 to 60 years, 71% of men aged 61 to 70 years, and 88% of men aged 81 years and older [11]. It is estimated that 90% of men between 45 and 80 years of age have LUTS [12]. The BPH registry and patient survey of 6,184 patients reported 33% with mild LUTS (IPSS<7), 52% with moderate LUTS (IPSS 8~19), and 15% with severe LUTS (IPSS≥20) [13].

The incidence of BPH from 5,667 subjects in the prostate cancer prevention trial (IPSS>14) was 34.4 per 1,000 persons per year in the United States in men older than 55 years, with the risk of BPH increasing 4% with each additional year of age [14].

The urologic diseases in America BPH project examined the prevalence of moderate to severe LUTS reported in US population-based studies that used the definition of an AUA-SI score of ≥7 [15]. The Olmsted County Study showed a progressive increase in the prevalence of moderate to severe LUTS to nearly 50% by the eighth decade of life [16]. Moderate to severe LUTS was also associated with the development of acute urinary retention (AUR) as a symptom of BPH progression, increasing from 6.8 episodes per 1,000 patient years to 34.7 episodes in men ≥70 years.

A prospective study using data from the health professionals follow-up study reported worsening LUTS increased with age with progression to severe LUTS at 44.9 per 1,000 man-years [17].

### 2\. Racial/ethnic disparities

The prostate cancer prevention trial reported that the highest prevalence of BPH was among Hispanic men, followed by black men, Caucasian (white) men, and Asian American men [14].

A similar finding was noted in a prospective study using the AUA-SI in two large cohorts, including the California men's health study and the research program in genes, environment and health [18]. The highest prevalence of LUTS was among Hispanic men, followed by black, white, and Asian men. Asian men were at lower risk for moderate or severe LUTS than were white men. The incidence rate of LUTS increased with increasing baseline age for almost all racial/ethnic groups (range, 32% to 56%) [18].

### 3\. Co-existing erectile dysfunction

The pathophysiology of LUTS and its underlying mechanisms are not fully understood but may have similarity with those of ED [5]. It has been observed that there is an independent relationship between LUTS/BPH and co-existing ED [19-23]. While increasing age is a known predictor of LUTS/BPH and ED separately, LUTS/BPH severity is an even better predictor of ED than increases in a patient's age [24], thus establishing an independent link between LUTS/BPH and ED [6].

In 6,924 men from the United States with LUTS, 71% had co-existing ED [25]. In 453 men with planned surgery for LUTS/BPH, the incidence of co-existing ED increased with LUTS severity from 36% in men with moderate LUTS to 94% in men with severe LUTS [26].

In a review article, the prevalence of coexisting LUTS and ED was shown to increase with age; the severity of one disease often correlated with the other, with most men who sought treatment for either LUTS or ED having both conditions [19]. However, <33% of middle-aged and older men in the general population had coexisting LUTS and ED.

In an integrated analysis of 3 clinical trials of tadalafil in patients with LUTS/BPH, 69% of the patients reported a history of ED [27].

### 4\. Other comorbidities

In addition to the presence of co-existing ED in patients presenting with LUTS/BPH, there are several other comorbidities that have been identified in men with LUTS/BPH. The BPH registry and patient survey [13] reported the following comorbidities in the 6,909 men enrolled: hypertension, 53%; high cholesterol, 45%; erectile or other sexual dysfunction, 36%; digestive tract disorder, 21%; arthritis, 20%; heart disease/heart failure, 18%; diabetes, 17%; depression/anxiety/sleep disorder, 16%; allergies/cold/flu/congestion, 15%; and general pain/inflammation, 11%.

In an integrated analysis of 3 clinical trials of tadalafil in men with LUTS/BPH, the men who also had co-existing ED had higher incidences of comorbid cardiovascular disease (50% vs. 41%), hypertension (43% vs. 35%), and diabetes mellitus (15% vs. 7%) than did men with only LUTS/BPH, respectively [27].

### 5\. Risk factors associated with lower urinary tract symptoms/benign prostatic hyperplasia

The risk factors associated with LUTS/BPH are similar to the risk factors associated with ED, suggesting that the pathophysiology of LUTS and its underlying mechanisms may have a similarity to those of ED. Potential risk factors for LUTS/BPH include age, sedentary lifestyle and lack of exercise, smoking and excessive alcohol intake, depression, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, hyperlipidemia, Type 2 diabetes mellitus, obesity/waist circumference, hypogonadism, prostate disorder, inflammation, and genetic predisposition [6, 14, 28]. The more notable risk factors that increase the likelihood of LUTS/BPH include age, diabetes, hypertension, obesity, and hypogonadism [15, 28]. Factors associated with decreased risks include increased physical activity, moderate alcohol intake, and increased vegetable consumption [29].

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## EPIDEMIOLOGY IN ASIAN MEN

### 1\. Incidence in Asians

Asian American men have an estimated BPH incidence rate of 29.4 per 1,000 person-years, which is slightly lower than that reported for Caucasians [14]. The prevalence of BPH was 27% in Korean men from a community-based study in Chungbuk province using the definition of BPH that combined a prostate volume >20 mL and IPSS ≥8 [30].

In a cross-sectional community-based survey in Korean men 50 years and older, the overall incidence of moderate to severe LUTS/BPH was 21.0% [31]. The incidence of moderate to severe LUTS/BPH increased with increasing age: 11.6% in the 50- to 59-year age group, 18.1% in the 60- to 69-year age group, 30.8% in the 70- to 79-year age group, and up to 50.8% in the 80-year-and-older group. In a community-based epidemiological study in Korean men 50 years and older, the overall incidence of moderate to severe LUTS was 23.3% [32]. The incidence of moderate to severe LUTS increased with age from 17.7% in the 50- to 59-year age group, 23.3% in the 60- to 69-year age group, and up to 35.3% in the 70-year-and-older group. The prevalence of moderate to severe LUTS/BPH increased with age from 44% for men aged 50 to 59 years to 63% for men aged 70 to 79 years from a Japanese community-based study [33].

In a study of 1,224 Korean men (50 to 59 years) with urological diseases including LUTS/BPH, 18% had LUTS/BPH (defined as IPSS >7 and total prostate volume ≥30 mL); however, 6.3% had LUTS/BPH with BPO (defined as IPSS >7, a total prostate volume ≥30 mL, and a Qmax <15 mL) [34].

In a report on 994 Asian men with LUTS seeking medical help from a urology clinic in a prospective observational registry, the severity of LUTS was approximately 10% mild, 50% moderate, and 40% severe using the IPSS [35]. The incidence of severe LUTS increased with age; 28% of patients younger than 60 years had severe LUTS, while 47% of patients older than 70 years had severe LUTS. The most bothersome LUTS/BPH symptoms reported in these patients included nocturia (64%), followed by a weak urinary stream (56%), and incomplete emptying (53%). A complication of LUTS/BPH is AUR, which was reported in 12% of the Asian patients seeking LUTS/BPH treatment; only 2.3% of the patients had an episode of AUR while receiving BPH treatment [35].

In a multicenter, prospective study conducted in Korea, younger patients (mean, 55.7 years) were more likely to seek treatment because of voiding symptoms, while older patients (mean, 73.8 years) were more likely to seek treatment for both voiding and storage symptoms [36].

### 2\. Co-existing erectile dysfunction in Asians with lower urinary tract symptoms/benign prostatic hyperplasia

Sexual disorders in 1,155 Asian men were shown to increase with increasing age and increasing severity of LUTS [37]. ED increased with age and was present in 33%, 61%, and 87% of men with no or mild LUTS aged 50 to 59, 60 to 69, and 70 to 80 years, respectively, and ED was present in 54%, 84%, and 91%, respectively, of men with moderate to severe LUTS in those age groups [37]. Of 918 sexually active Asian men with LUTS from a prospective observational registry, 80% had co-existing ED with 25%, 19%, and 36% reporting mild, moderate, or severe ED [35]. Approximately 60% of 151 Korean patients with LUTS/BPH reported having co-existing ED from a tadalafil clinical study [38].

### 3\. Other comorbidities in Asians

In addition to the presence of co-existing ED in patients with LUTS/BPH, several other comorbidities have been identified in Asian men with LUTS/BPH and are similar to those identified in non-Asians. Common comorbidities reported in Asian men include hypertension (38%), obesity (36%), diabetes mellitus (15%), and ischemic heart disease (7%) [35].

### 4\. Risk factors in Asians

Few potential risk factors for LUTS/BPH are specific to Asians. The risk factors did not appear to be different from those previously reported from the global population, which include age, sedentary lifestyle and lack of exercise, smoking and excessive alcohol intake, depression, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, hyperlipidemia, Type 2 diabetes mellitus, obesity/waist circumference, hypogonadism, prostate disorder, inflammation, and genetic predisposition [6, 14, 28]. Factors in Asian patients that may decrease the risk for LUTS/BPH include increased physical activity, moderate alcohol intake, and increased vegetable consumption [29].

In a study of 1,224 Korean men (aged 50 to 59 years) with urological diseases including LUTS/BPH, 29% had metabolic syndrome (MetS) [34]. Patients with 3 or more of the following 5 MetS components were considered to have MetS: (1) blood pressure ≥130/85 mmHg and/or receiving antihypertensive medication, (2) fasting blood sugar ≥110 mg/dL and/or receiving antidiabetic medication, (3) waist circumference ≥90 cm, (4) highdensity lipoprotein cholesterol <40 mg/dL and/or receiving antihypercholesterolemic medication, and (5) triglyceride level ≥150 mg/dL and/or receiving antihypercholesterolemic medication. An increased number of MetS components in a patient was found to increase the risk of LUTS/BPH.

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## LOWER URINARY TRACT SYMPTOMS/BENIGN PROSTATIC HYPERPLASIA EUROPEAN ASSOCIATION OF UROLOGY TREATMENT GUIDELINES

There are several guidelines available to assist physicians in the treatment of LUTS/BPH and include the US guideline [7] and recent EAU guideline [7].

The EAU guideline applies to men 40 years and older with non-neurogenic benign forms of LUTS, for example, LUTS/BPO, detrusor overactivity/overactive bladder (OAB), or nocturnal polyuria [7]. Not included in these treatment guidelines are LUTS due to neurologic diseases, urinary incontinence, urogenital infections, ureteral stones, or malignant diseases of the LUT.

Drug treatment guidelines have included the use of alpha-blockers (alpha-adrenergic antagonists), 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors (5ARIs), antimuscarinics (anticholinergics), a PDE5 inhibitor (tadalafil), combination therapies, and vasopressin analogues [7]. The use of combination therapies such as an alpha-blocker with a 5ARI or antimuscarinic were also recommended. Watchful waiting (WW) for men who are not bothered enough by their symptoms to need drug therapy, changes in lifestyle to reduce risk factors, and surgical treatment were also part of the treatment guidelines but are not detailed in this report.

### 1\. Conservative treatment: watchful waiting

Physicians with patients who present with LUTS/BPH but are not bothered enough to need drug or surgical interventions have the option of placing those patients on WW [7]. WW includes periodic monitoring to establish the severity of LUTS, education and lifestyle modifications such as dietary changes, reduction of nighttime fluid intake, avoidance of caffeine, increased physical activity, and weight loss to reduce symptoms and decrease risk factors associated with LUTS [6, 7]. Factors associated with decreased risks include increased physical activity, moderate alcohol intake, and increased vegetable consumption [29].

### 2\. Drug treatments

Complementary alternative medicines (CAMs) were not recommended by the EAU because of inconsistencies in clinical data.

#### 1) Alpha-blockers

Alpha-blockers are suggested for moderate to severe LUTS/BPH [7]. They are the most commonly prescribed type of medication for treating BPH. Alpha-blockers improve urine flow by relaxing the smooth muscles of the prostate and bladder neck and also reduce BOO or resistance [39]. Alpha-blockers are associated with adverse effects such as orthostatic hypotension, dizziness, and sexual dysfunction (ED, abnormal ejaculation). Alpha-blockers on the market include tamsulosin, doxazosin, terazosin, silodosin, and alfuzosin.

#### 2) 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors

The 5ARIs are suggested for moderate to severe LUTS and BPE (prostate volume >40 mL) due to BPH [7]. The 5ARIs prevent progression of growth of the prostate or reduce the volume of the prostate in some men by inhibiting the production of the hormone dihydrotestosterone [39]. The 5ARIs are associated with sexual dysfunction (decreased libido, ED, abnormal ejaculation) and gynecomastia, and treatment effects may be delayed for 6 to 12 months. Among the 5ARIs on the market are dutasteride and finasteride.

#### 3) Antimuscarinic drugs

Antimuscarinics (anticholinergics) are suggested for moderate to severe LUTS/BPH with OAB/storage symptoms [7]. Low treatment compliance in patients taking antimuscarinics has been an issue with reports ranging from 35% to 44% of patients not continuing treatment, possibly due to inadequate drug efficacy or intolerable side effects (dry mouth, dry eyes, and constipation) [40]. Marketed antimuscarinics include oxybutynin, tolderodine, propiverine, darfinacin, solifenacin, trospium, and fesoterodine.

#### 4) A phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor

Tadalafil is a PDE5i suggested for moderate to severe LUTS/BPH (with or without ED) [7]. The possible mode of action is summarized later in this paper but is hypothesized to be due to smooth muscle relaxation in the bladder neck, prostate, and urethra; increased pelvic blood perfusion; and modulated afferent nerve activity in LUT tissues. Common adverse events with tadalafil include headache, indigestion, back pain, flushing, and nasal congestion. Tadalafil (5 mg once daily) was approved in October 2011 in Europe and is the only PDE5i approved for LUTS/BPH with or without ED. Tadalafil and tamsulosin were evaluated in patients with LUTS/BPH and ED (Table 1) [41]. Although both treatments resulted in improvement in LUTS/BPH (improved total IPSS scores), tadalafil was effective in improving ED (improving IIEF score) when compared to a placebo but tamsulosin was not.

![](/ArticleImage/2074WJMH/wjmh-31-193-i001-m.jpg)

Table 1   
Efficacy of tadalafil in men with lower urinary tract symptoms

  * Click for larger image



#### 5) Combination therapy

Combination therapy of an alpha-blocker and a 5ARI is suggested in men with moderate to severe LUTS/BPH, BPE, and a reduced Qmax. Combination therapy of an alpha-blocker and antimuscarinic is suggested if monotherapy with either drug does not provide adequate relief of OAB/storage symptoms. There were insufficient data to provide a recommendation on the potential use of tadalafil and tamsulosin combination therapy.

#### 6) Vasopressin analogues

A vasopressin analogue is suggested for treatment of nocturia due to nocturnal polyuria. Desmopressin is a synthetic analogue of the antidiuretic hormone arginine vasopressin, which decreases urine volume and increases urine osmolality.

#### 7) Surgical treatment

Prostate surgery such as transurethral resection of the prostate is indicated in men with absolute indications or drug treatment-resistant LUTS due to BPO. Indications for surgery include severe conditions such as urinary retention, gross hematuria, urinary tract infection, and bladder stones.

#### 8) Minimally invasive therapies

Minimally invasive treatments suggested include transurethral microwave therapy and transurethral needle therapy. An alternative to catheterization for men unfit for surgery are prostate stents.

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## LOWER URINARY TRACT SYMPTOMS/BENIGN PROSTATIC HYPERPLASIA TREATMENT GUIDELINES IN ASIAN PATIENTS

The Japanese Urological Association (JUA) guidelines [42] have been provided for physicians in Japan. However, other Asian countries may choose to use the EAU guidelines [7]. The current Korean Prostate Society (KPS) guidelines [43] are based on prior EAU guidelines.

The JUA BPH guideline recommends that patients seeking treatment for LUTS/BPH should have a mandatory assessment that includes a medical history, physical examination, symptom and QoL questionnaires, urinalysis, prostate ultrasonography, measurement of PSA, postvoid residual urine, and uroflowmetry [42].

After the development of the JUA guidelines, there are many similarities with the EAU guideline. With the approval of tadalafil in Korea to treat LUTS/BPH with or without ED and the advent of new EAU guidelines that include tadalafil as a recommended drug therapy [7], future KPS and JUA guidelines will likely include tadalafil. A brief summary of the commonalities and differences of JUA and KPS guidelines is described below.

In KPS and JUA guidelines, common recommended drug therapies include alpha-blockers, 5ARIs, vasopressin analogues, and combination therapies [42, 43]. However, the current JUA guideline has graded the use of monotherapy antimuscarinics or tadalafil therapy as 'reserved' (unable to decide the grade of recommendation).

Like the EAU guideline, the KPS and JUA guidelines also suggest surgical treatment, minimally invasive therapies, and conservative treatment. Use of CAMs was not graded highly by the JUA or EAU because of the lack of consistent clinical data and cost burden to the patient. Of note is that WW in the JUA guideline was graded below drug treatments and surgical interventions.

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## REVIEW OF ASIAN CLINICAL PRACTICE IN TREATMENT OF LOWER URINARY TRACT SYMPTOMS/BENIGN PROSTATIC HYPERPLASIA

From a prospective observational registry in men with BPH from 5 Asian countries (Japan was not included), 78% of the men were started on LUTS/BPH medication, 13% were placed on WW, and 9% underewent surgery [35]. This pattern was substantially different from a large US study in which the majority of patients with LUTS/BPH (approximately 76%) were placed on WW, approximately 21% received medical therapy, and 2% underwent surgery [44]. The most common LUTS/BPH medications used in Asian men were alpha-blockers, with alfuzosin being the most frequently prescribed (59%) [35]. Other medications included other alpha-blockers such as terazosin (20%), doxazosin (14%), and tamsulosin (6%) and 5ARIs, specifically, finasteride (2%), dutasteride (1%), and others (4%). Tadalafil was not an approved drug in these countries and therefore not part of the database. LUTS/BPH was resolved in 93% of patients after surgery, in 83% of those on BPH medication, and in 34% of those on WW [35]. Patients with LUTS/BPH and ED who were receiving LUTS/BPH drug treatment did not have significant changes in the co-existing ED as assessed by mean IIEF-5 scores. The largest IIEF-5 change from baseline (4.5) to end of treatment (5.5) was noted in patients with severe ED [35].

A study conducted using the National Health Insurance (NHI) program of Korea from 2004 to 2008 determined the trends and changes of BPH treatments in 3.8 million Korean men who visited health care centers [45]. The BPH medications allowed to be prescribed (and recorded in the database) were alpha-blockers, 5ARIs, antimuscarinics, and antidiuretics. Combination therapies and PDE5 inhibitors were not assessed in the report because the Korea NHI program did not permit physicians to prescribe them. As the Korean men aged, medical treatments increased, as did surgical interventions. South Korean men with LUTS/BPH in 2008 were prescribed alphablockers (n=2,489,677), 5ARIs (n=939,686), antimuscarinics (n=404,126), and an antidiuretic (desmopressin) (n=38,241). Twice as many patients were prescribed BPH medications in 2008 than in 2004. Desmopressin use increased 14-fold in Korean men for treatment of nocturia during the review period [45].

A survey conducted in 2007 among 251 Korean urologists who completed questionnaires determined that almost all of the patients complained of voiding difficulties such as nocturia (98.8%), weak stream (96.8%), post-voiding residual urine sense (95.6%), and daytime frequency (51.2%) [46]. The initial treatment for approximately 92% of the patients was drug therapy, with the two most common being monotherapy alpha-blockers (57.2%) and combination therapy (alpha-blocker with 5ARI, 41.6%). The use of CAMs with an alpha-blocker comprised 0.8% of initial drug therapy. Use of a monotherapy alpha-blocker decreased with increased severity of LUTS/BPH and was replaced with combination therapy (alpha-blocker with 5ARIs) in such cases [46].

A 5-month (2008 to 2009) prospective study in 1,054 patients with LUTS/BPH who sought treatment from urology centers in Korea [36] had slightly different treatment patterns than those previously observed in Korean men [45]. In the cross-sectional assessment (visit 2, 4 weeks after initial evaluation), alpha-blocker monotherapy was provided for 67.9% of patients, while combination therapy of an alpha-blocker with 5ARIs was provided for 24.8% of patients and an alpha-blocker with an antimuscarinic was provided in 4.3% patients [36]. Patients with BPE (prostate volume ≥30 mL) and a PSA level ≥1.5 were more likely to receive combination therapy than monotherapy [36].

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## MODE OF ACTION OF THE PHOSPHODIESTERASE TYPE 5 INHIBITOR TADALAFIL

Voiding symptoms are associated with BPO, which is attributable to BPE as a result of BPH. Storage symptoms are more complex and do not appear to be BPH- or BPE-related because both men and women have these symptoms; more likely, these symptoms are associated with involuntary detrusor contractions or detrusor overactivity (DO) [39, 47]. Involuntary detrusor contraction during the storage phase of the voiding cycle [48] seems to lead to OAB symptoms.

LUTS storage symptoms, unlike voiding symptoms, do not appear to be related to BPE but seem to be more closely related with DO [39, 47]. Both men and women present with voiding symptoms [3, 49]; thus BPE is not the only mechanism by which men present with LUTS voiding symptoms. Storage symptoms also occur in men and women and increase with age in both genders [50]. Storage LUTS may be associated with bladder dysfunction due to changes or alterations in afferent nerves or in interstitial cells within the bladder rather than BPE [51].

There are 4 pathophysiological pathways that lead to increased risk of LUTS: reduced nitric oxide (NO)-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) signaling, chronic inflammation/steroid hormone imbalance/increased RhoA-Rho-kinase activity, autonomic hyperactivity, and pelvic atherosclerosis [5, 6, 20]. These factors can lead to reduced function of nerves and endothelium, alterations in smooth muscle tone, arterial insufficiency, reduced blood flow and hypoxia-related tissue damage, increased smooth muscle cell proliferation in the prostate, and bladder hypertrophy/noncompliance.

PDE5 activity is present in the LUT, specifically in the prostate [52-56], urethra [55-57], and bladder [53, 55, 56]. The smooth muscle areas of PDE5i interest in LUTS/BPH include the detrusor, prostatic stromal (prostate), vascular (artery), and urethral areas. All these areas have shown PDE5 activity and are potential areas of inhibition activity for tadalafil.

Prostate smooth muscle relaxation, reduction of detrusor muscle overactivity, and normal contraction of prostate tissue were inhibited when cGMP was increased using either NO donors or PDE5 inhibitors [52, 58, 59]. Additionally, PDE5 inhibitors (including tadalafil, sildenafil, or the NO donor sodium nitroprusside) have been shown to attenuate alpha-adrenergic-induced contraction of isolated human prostate tissue [52, 59]. Thus cGMP may contribute to the regulation of prostatic smooth muscle cell contraction.

The vasculature that provides blood flow to the LUT may be affected by smooth muscle cell relaxation mediated through PDE5 inhibition. Decreased oxygenation of LUT tissue may contribute to LUTS/BPH. Atherosclerosis is associated with remodeling of smooth muscle structure and function in the pelvic vasculature [60, 61], penis [62, 63], prostate [64], and bladder [61]; and chronic ischemia of the LUT is often associated with LUTS/BPH [65].

In addition, there are three nerve systems of interest in LUTS/BPH: the pudendal, pelvic, and hypogastric nerves. The voiding process involves stimulation of the detrusor and inhibition of the parasympathetic innervation of the urethra and bladder neck hypogastric nerves, plus recruitment of motor neurons to the urethral sphincter [66]. The storage process involves inhibition of the parasympathetic innervation of the detrusor muscle with urethral sphincter contraction via sympathetic innervation of the hypogastric nerves and recruitment of the pudendal nerves. Storage symptoms may be the result of bladder dysfunction due to changes or alterations in afferent nerves or in interstitial cells [25]. Improvements in both storage and voiding urinary symptoms observed with tadalafil may be due to smooth muscle cell relaxation and regulation in the bladder neck, prostate, and urethra with potential resulting modulation of the afferent nerve activity. The relaxation of smooth muscle cells may increase blood flow through the supporting LUTS vasculature system. PDE5 inhibition may then have an impact on LUTS/BPH through increased perfusion of the LUT resulting in increased oxygenation. Animal models suggest that the reduced symptoms may also be due in part to an enhancement of NO inhibition of the overactive afferent nerve activity within the LUT [5, 66, 67]. Long-term efficacy may be due to continued smooth muscle cell relaxation of the LUT tissues with increased blood perfusion and oxygenation of LUT tissues due to improved function of the supporting vasculature and resulting modulation of the afferent nerve activity.

In summary, the treatment of LUTS/BPH with or without ED with tadalafil is believed to relax smooth muscles in the bladder, prostate, urethra, and supporting vasculature, thereby increasing blood perfusion to the LUT.

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## EFFICACY AND SAFETY OF PHOSPHODIESTERASE TYPE 5 INHIBITOR

### 1\. Sildenafil and vardenafil

Sildenafil and vardenafil, both PDE5is, have shown improvement in LUTS/BPH in single randomized placebo-controlled studies; however, these results have not been reproduced [68, 69].

### 2\. Tadalafil global placebo-controlled trials (pivotal)

Tadalafil has shown reduction in LUTS/BPH storage and voiding symptoms as assessed by the IPSS in several clinical trials (Table 1). Tadalafil has also been shown to independently reduce ED as assessed by the IIEF-EF in men with LUTS/BPH (Table 1).

Efficacy of tadalafil for the treatment of men with LUTS/BPH was demonstrated in 4 randomized, placebo-controlled clinical studies [41, 70-72], and long-term efficacy was maintained during a 1-year uncontrolled study [73].

The first study was a double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-finding randomized study comparing various doses of tadalafil (once daily) with placebo for 12 weeks [70] followed by a 1-year, open-label (OL) extension study [73] of tadalafil (5 mg once daily). Tadalafil (5 mg) significantly reduced LUTS/BPH versus placebo (IPSS, -4.9 vs. -2.3, p<0.01; IPSS voiding subscore, -2.9 vs. -1.3, p<0.001; IPSS storage subscore, -1.9 vs. -1.0, p<0.01) [70]. Changes were maintained after 1 year in the OL extension study [73].

A second study was a double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-finding randomized study comparing tadalafil (5 mg once daily) with a placebo for 12 weeks [71]. Tadalafil significantly reduced LUTS/BPH versus the placebo (IPSS, -5.6 vs. -3.6, p=0.004; IPSS voiding subscore, -3.3 vs. -2.3, p=0.02; IPSS storage subscore, -2.3 vs. -1.3, p=0.002) [71].

A third study was a double-blind, placebo- and active-controlled, randomized study comparing tadalafil (5 mg once daily) with a placebo for 12 weeks with tamsulosin as an active control [41]. Tadalafil significantly reduced LUTS/BPH total IPSS and IPSS voiding but not IPSS storage versus the placebo (IPSS, -6.3 vs. -4.2, p= 0.001; IPSS voiding subscore, -4.1 vs. -2.6, p<0.001; IPSS storage subscore, -2.2 vs. -1.6, p=0.055) [41]. In addition, tadalafil (5 mg) significantly improved erectile function compared with the placebo, while tamsulosin did not.

A fourth study was a double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-finding randomized study comparing various doses of tadalafil (5 mg once daily) with a placebo for 12 weeks [72]. Tadalafil significantly reduced LUTS/BPH versus the placebo (IPSS, -6.1 vs. -3.8, p<0.001; IPSS voiding subscore, -3.6 vs. -2.2, p=0.055; IPSS storage subscore, -2.5 vs. -1.6, p<0.001) [72]. Tadalafil (5 mg) significantly improved erectile function compared with the placebo.

### 3\. Tadalafil pooled-population analysis

#### 1) Lower urinary tract symptoms/benign prostatic hyperplasia with or without erectile dysfunction

A pooled analysis population set from the 3 tadalafil studies that did not require men to have both ED and LUTS/BPH [70-72] provided a large dataset for analysis of tadalafil's effect on LUTS/BPH in men with and without ED [27]. A second pooled analysis population set from the four tadalafil studies [41, 70-72] provided a large dataset of sexually active men with LUTS/BPH and co-existing ED for analysis [74].

Data from an integrated analysis of a pooled population from 3 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 12week studies in patients with LUTS/BPH [70-72] was recently assessed to determine the efficacy and safety of tadalafil in patients with and without ED [27]. A total of 338 (31%) patients reported no prior history of ED. Tadalafil (5 mg once daily) significantly reduced LUTS/BPH versus placebo in men without ED (IPSS, -5.4 vs. -3.3, p<0.01; IPSS voiding subscore, -3.5 vs. -2.0, p<0.01; IPSS storage subscore, -1.9 vs. -1.3, p<0.05) and had similar degree reductions in men with ED [27]. Tadalafil also significantly improved QoL from baseline versus placebo in men without ED (IPSS-QoL, -1.0 vs. -0.7, p<0.05). Significant improvements in LUTS/BPH were similar between men with and without ED. Tadalafil was safe and well tolerated. Common treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAEs) reported by men with and without ED were also similar. Headache, dyspepsia, and nasopharyngitis were the most commonly reported TEAEs in men without ED treated with tadalafil; while headache, dyspepsia, and hypertension were the most commonly reported TEAEs in men with ED treated with tadalafil [27].

#### 2) Lower urinary tract symptoms/benign prostatic hyperplasia with erectile dysfunction

An integrated analysis [74] of a pooled population from the three randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 12-week studies in patients with LUTS/BPH [70-72] plus a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 12-week tadalafil study that required patients to have LUTS/BPH and co-existing ED [41] was recently assessed to determine the efficacy and safety of tadalafil in patients with co-existing ED at the time of randomization. Tadalafil (5 mg) significantly reduced LUTS/BPH versus the placebo in men with ED (IPSS, -6.0 vs. -3.6, p<0.001; IPSS voiding subscore, -3.7 vs. -2.1, p<0.01; IPSS storage subscore, -2.3 vs. -1.5, p<0.05) [74]. Improvements in IIEF-EF domain score (tadalafil, 6.3; placebo, 1.4) were also significant versus the placebo, as were the IPSS storage and voiding subscores, and IPSS-QoL (all p<0.001). Headache, back pain, and dyspepsia were the most commonly reported TEAEs in men with ED treated with tadalafil [74].

### 4\. Tadalafil: global studies-summary

In the treatment of men with LUTS/BPH with or without ED, tadalafil (5 mg once daily) resulted in statistically significant and clinically meaningful improvements in LUTS/BPH compared to a placebo and also improved ED compared with the placebo. Tadalafil (5 mg) also provided durable effectiveness for LUTS/BPH without diminishing response over time and with a favorable risk-benefit profile. Tadalafil (5 mg) was well tolerated and no new safety issues were identified.

### 5\. Tadalafil: Asian clinical studies

Efficacy of tadalafil in Asian men with LUTS/BPH was determined in 3 pivotal randomized, placebo-controlled clinical studies with long-term efficacy maintained during an OL extension study (Table 1) [75-77]. Results from one tadalafil study have yet to be published and are not discussed here.

The efficacy, safety, and dose response of tadalafil (2.5 mg and 5.0 mg once daily) were assessed in a prospective, multicenter, 12-week, double-blind, randomized, parallel-group, placebo-controlled study in Japanese men with LUTS/BPH [75]. A 42-week OL phase continued after the 12-week double-blind phase. The main inclusion criteria were patients who were Asian men 45 years and older, a >6-month history of LUTS/BPH, total IPSS ≥13, intermediate BOO per Qmax of 4 to 15 mL/s, and prostate volume >20 mL. The incidence of co-existing ED or other risk factors was not published. Numerical decreases in total IPSS for the change from baseline to the study endpoint observed for the 2.5 mg (-4.5, p=0.201) and 5.0 mg (-4.9, p=0.062) doses of tadalafil versus the placebo (-3.8) did not reach statistical significance. At week 12, a repeated-measures analysis identified a significant decrease in total IPSS for the 5 mg dose (-5.0, p=0.035) versus the placebo (-3.7). Significant decreases in IPSS voiding scores but not IPSS storage scores for only the 5.0 mg dose of tadalafil compared with the placebo were noted. There were no significant improvements in Qmax with tadalafil compared to the placebo. IPSS score changes seen in the double-blind phase were maintained over the OL extension phase. Nasopharyngitis, diarrhea, back pain, and headache were the most commonly reported TEAEs. Tadalafil was considered well tolerated, and no new safety concerns were identified [75].

The efficacy and safety of 2.5 mg and 5.0 mg once-daily doses of tadalafil were also assessed in a prospective, multicenter, 12-week, double-blind, randomized, parallel-group, placebo-controlled study, with tamsulosin as an active control, in Asian men with LUTS/BPH [76]. The main inclusion criteria were patients who were Asian men 45 years and older, a >6-month history of LUTS/BPH, total IPSS ≥13, intermediate BOO per Qmax of 4 to 15 mL/s, and a prostate volume ≥20 mL. Of the 612 participants, 55.9% were Japanese, 29.4% were Korean, and 14.7% were Taiwanese. The incidence of co-existing ED or other risk factors was not published. Significant decreases in total IPSS for the change from baseline to the study endpoint were observed for the 2.5 mg (-4.8, p=0.003) and 5.0 mg (-4.7, p=0.004) doses of tadalafil versus the placebo (-3.0). Tamsulosin had numerically greater decreases in total IPSS, but statistical comparison with tadalafil was not conducted. Significant decreases in IPSS voiding scores but not IPSS storage scores were noted for both tadalafil groups compared with the placebo. There were no significant improvements in Qmax with tadalafil compared to the placebo [76].

Myalgia, headache, back pain, nasopharyngitis, and dizziness were the most commonly reported TEAEs. Tadalafil was considered well tolerated and no new safety concerns were identified [76].

### 6\. Tadalafil: Asian studies-summary

The efficacy and safety results of tadalafil (5 mg once daily) observed in Asian men with LUTS/BPH were similar to the previously observed efficacy and safety in non-Asian men with LUTS/BPH.

Go to:

## CONCLUSIONS

The number of men diagnosed with LUTS/BPH in the general population has been increasing over the last decade. This may be due to better disease awareness and diagnosis, the increasing lifespan of men, and older men seeking medical help to increase their QoL by reducing LUTS. The prevalence and severity of LUTS/BPH is known to increase with increasing age [19]. Asian men may have a lower prevalence rate of LUTS/BPH and a lower risk for moderate or severe LUTS/BPH compared to Blacks, Hispanics, or Caucasians [14, 18]. Co-existing ED and comorbidities such as hypertension, obesity, diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular disease are present globally with similar incidence rates in Asian men [13, 25]. Risk factors such as increasing age, sedentary lifestyle and lack of exercise, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, hyperlipidemia, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and obesity/waist circumference also are similarly present globally and in Asian men. Co-existing ED has underlying mechanisms, pathophysiology, and risk factors that are similar to LUTS/BPH [5]. LUTS/BPH and ED may occur independently of each other but often occur together, with ED tending to be noticed first. With a better understanding of the pathophysiology of LUTS/BPH, the mode of action of drug therapies, addition of the first-in-class PDE5i tadalafil, and new EAU treatment guidelines, physicians have more options for managing patients with LUTS/BPH with or without ED. It is increasingly being recognized that to best treat a patient, the patient must be assessed for BPE and BPO to determine whether a patient has LUTS storage or voiding problems or both. Storage LUTS and voiding LUTS are separate entities, with storage likely associated with the bladder, and voiding often associated with BPO. While storage and voiding LUTS are shared in LUTS/BPH, initial drug treatment guidelines may be based on a patient's initial LUTS/BPH assessment. One noticeable difference in LUTS/BPH treatment is that Asian men are more likely to be placed on drug treatment and then WW [47] than are global patients, who are more likely to be placed on WW and then drug treatment. Monotherapy or combination therapy can be tailored for each patient to best improve IPSS scores and QoL for the patient while minimizing potentially negating adverse side effects. With the link between LUTS/BPH and ED established, assessing patients for both LUTS/BPH and ED is prudent. Tadalafil (5 mg once daily) is a safe and efficacious drug that is approved for treating patients with LUTS/BPH and also patients with co-existing LUTS/BPH and ED.

Improvements in both storage and voiding urinary symptoms observed with tadalafil could be caused by the smooth muscle cell relaxation in the bladder neck, prostate, and urethra with increased blood perfusion in the LUT and reduced nonvoiding detrusor contractions with possible resulting modulation of the afferent nerve activity [5].

Treatment with tadalafil (5 mg) resulted in statistically significant and clinically meaningful improvements in LUTS/BPH compared to a placebo in Asian men, as demonstrated in two clinical trials [75, 76]. Tadalafil (5 mg once daily) provided long-term effectiveness without diminishing the response.

Any treatments for BPH can modify sexual function, but tadalafil can improve co-existing LUTS/BPH and ED.

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url: http://arxiv.org/abs/2208.04985v2
title: [2208.04985v2] Pricing Novel Goods
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# Economics > Theoretical Economics

**arXiv:2208.04985v2** (econ) 

[Submitted on 9 Aug 2022 ([v1](https://arxiv.org/abs/2208.04985v1)), last revised 2 Aug 2024 (this version, v2)]

# Title:Pricing Novel Goods

Authors:[Francesco Giovannoni](https://arxiv.org/search/econ?searchtype=author&query=Giovannoni,+F), [Toomas Hinnosaar](https://arxiv.org/search/econ?searchtype=author&query=Hinnosaar,+T)

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> Abstract:We study a bilateral trade problem where a principal has private information that is revealed with delay, such as a seller who does not yet know her production cost. Postponing the contracting process incurs a costly delay, while early contracting with limited information can create incentive issues, as the principal might misrepresent private information that will be revealed later. We show that the optimal mechanism can effectively address these challenges by leveraging the sequential nature of the problem. The optimal mechanism is a menu of two-part tariffs, where the variable part is determined by the principal's incentives and the fixed part by the agent's incentives. As two-part tariffs might be impractical in some applications, we also study price mechanisms. We show that the optimal price mechanism often entails trade at both the ex-ante and ex-post stages. Dynamic price mechanisms can lower the cost of delay by transacting with high-type agents early and relax the incentive constraints by postponing contracts with lower-type agents. We also generalize our analysis to costly learning and study ex-post efficiency in our context. 

Subjects: |  Theoretical Economics (econ.TH)  
---|---  
Cite as: | [arXiv:2208.04985](https://arxiv.org/abs/2208.04985) [econ.TH]  
  | (or  [arXiv:2208.04985v2](https://arxiv.org/abs/2208.04985v2) [econ.TH] for this version)   
  |  <https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2208.04985> Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite  
  
## Submission history

From: Toomas Hinnosaar [[view email](/show-email/2db954d4/2208.04985)]   
**[[v1]](/abs/2208.04985v1)** Tue, 9 Aug 2022 18:26:14 UTC (159 KB)  
**[v2]** Fri, 2 Aug 2024 15:40:10 UTC (151 KB)  


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url: http://arxiv.org/abs/1806.04238v1
title: [1806.04238v1] Estimating Trade-Related Adjustment Costs in the Agricultural Sector in Iran
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# Economics > Econometrics

**arXiv:1806.04238v1** (econ) 

[Submitted on 11 Jun 2018]

# Title:Estimating Trade-Related Adjustment Costs in the Agricultural Sector in Iran

Authors:[Omid Karami](https://arxiv.org/search/econ?searchtype=author&query=Karami,+O), [Mina Mahmoudi](https://arxiv.org/search/econ?searchtype=author&query=Mahmoudi,+M)

View a PDF of the paper titled Estimating Trade-Related Adjustment Costs in the Agricultural Sector in Iran, by Omid Karami and Mina Mahmoudi

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> Abstract:Tariff liberalization and its impact on tax revenue is an important consideration for developing countries, because they are increasingly facing the difficult task of implementing and harmonizing regional and international trade commitments. The tariff reform and its costs for Iranian government is one of the issues that are examined in this study. Another goal of this paper is, estimating the cost of trade liberalization. On this regard, imports value of agricultural sector in Iran in 2010 was analyzed according to two scenarios. For reforming nuisance tariff, a VAT policy is used in both scenarios. In this study, TRIST method is used. In the first scenario, imports' value decreased to a level equal to the second scenario and higher tariff revenue will be created. The results show that reducing the average tariff rate does not always result in the loss of tariff revenue. This paper is a witness that different forms of tariff can generate different amount of income when they have same level of liberalization and equal effect on producers. Therefore, using a good tariff regime can help a government to generate income when increases social welfare by liberalization. 

Subjects: |  Econometrics (econ.EM)  
---|---  
Cite as: | [arXiv:1806.04238](https://arxiv.org/abs/1806.04238) [econ.EM]  
  | (or  [arXiv:1806.04238v1](https://arxiv.org/abs/1806.04238v1) [econ.EM] for this version)   
  |  <https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1806.04238> Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite  
Journal reference: | Scientific Journal of Agricultural Economics (2013), Vol. 2, Issue 1, P. 27-37  
  
## Submission history

From: Mina Mahmoudi [[view email](/show-email/57502443/1806.04238)]   
**[v1]** Mon, 11 Jun 2018 20:44:02 UTC (385 KB)  


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What Are Tariffs?

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# What Are Tariffs?

President Donald Trump has begun his second term with a raft of tariff threats to bolster his immigration priorities, support local industries, and compete with China. Here’s how these taxes work and how they’ve been used historically.  

![An employee works at a steel factory in China’s Shandong Province, in January 2024.](//cdn.cfr.org/sites/default/files/styles/immersive_image_3_2_desktop_2x/public/image/2024/06/Tariffs_BG.webp) An employee works at a steel factory in China’s Shandong Province, in January 2024. STR/AFP/Getty Images

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Summary

  * Tariffs are a form of tax applied on imports from other countries. Economists say the costs are largely passed on to consumers.
  * Countries have used them to protect domestic industries, such as agriculture and renewable energy, as well as to retaliate against other states’ unfair trade practices.
  * In his second term, U.S. President Trump is again moving to aggressively wield tariffs in pursuit of goals such as pressuring Canada and Mexico, competing with China, and reducing the U.S. trade deficit.



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## Introduction

Countries around the world have long used tariffs, a tax on imports, to prop up homegrown industries by inducing citizens to buy goods produced domestically. After World War II, however, tariffs largely fell out of favor in advanced economies because they often lead to reduced trade, higher prices for consumers, and retaliation from abroad. 

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In his first term, President Donald Trump broke with this economic orthodoxy and imposed tariffs on hundreds of billions of dollars worth of imported goods from China and other countries to try to combat alleged unfair trade practices, reduce the U.S. trade deficit, and boost domestic manufacturing in the name of national security and U.S. economic competitiveness. President Joe Biden largely left these tariffs in place, and wielded his own, helping to shape an emerging bipartisan revival of their use. 

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In his second term, Trump is again relying on tariffs to achieve an even wider array of goals. Canada and Mexico have faced tariffs over their immigration and drug enforcement policies, while Trump is wielding the threat of tariffs to pressure Denmark to relinquish control of Greenland, even as many economists continue to warn that the policy comes with significant downsides.

## What is a tariff?

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A tariff is a tax imposed on foreign-made goods, paid by the importing business to its home country’s government. The most common kind of tariffs are ad valorem, which are levied as a fixed percentage of the value of the imports. There are also “specific tariffs,” which are charged as a fixed amount on each imported good (for example, $2 per shirt) and “tariff-rate quotas,” which are tariffs that kick in or rise significantly after a certain amount of imports is reached (e.g., fifty thousand tons of sugar).

Tariffs can serve several goals. Like all taxes, they provide a modest source of government revenue. Several countries have also used tariffs to help fledgling industries at home, hoping to shelter local firms from foreign competitors. Some tariffs are also meant to address unfair practices that other countries have used to make their exports artificially cheap.

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## Who uses tariffs?

Almost every country imposes some tariffs. In general, wealthy countries maintain low tariffs compared to developing countries. There are several reasons why: developing countries might have more fragile industries that they wish to protect, or they might have fewer sources of government revenue. The United States, for instance, maintained high tariffs for decades, until income taxes [supplanted tariffs](https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/federal/how-has-federal-revenue-changed-over-time/ "supplanted tariffs") as the most important source of revenue in the 1930s. After World War II, tariffs continued to decline as the United States emphasized trade expansion as a central plank of its global strategy.

## Who authorizes tariffs in the United States?

The Constitution [grants Congress](https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/us-foreign-policy-powers-congress-and-president "grants Congress") the power “to regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states,” which it used for more than a century to impose tariffs. Perhaps most infamously, Congress raised close to nine hundred separate tariffs with the [1930 Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act](https://www.cfr.org/blog/twe-remembers-herbert-hoover-signs-smoot-hawley-tariff-law "1930 Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act"), which many economists say worsened the Great Depression. But over the past ninety years, Congress has delegated more and more trade authority to the executive branch, in part a response to Smoot-Hawley.

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Several pieces of legislation underline this trend. The [Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act of 1934](https://www.cfr.org/report/who-decides-congress-and-debate-over-trade-policy-1934-and-1974 "Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act of 1934") gave President Franklin D. Roosevelt the power to negotiate tariff-cutting trade deals with other countries. This was followed by the Trade Expansion Act of 1962, which granted the president authority to negotiate tariff reductions of up to 80 percent. The [Trade Act of 1974](https://www.finance.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/trade9.pdf "Trade Act of 1974") [PDF] allowed the executive branch to strike trade deals—with negotiating objectives set by Congress—that were then subject to an unamendable up-or-down vote, known as fast-tracking. Both Democratic and Republican presidents have used this authority to lower tariffs and enter into a range of trade deals, including the agreement establishing the [World Trade Organization ](https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/whats-next-wto "World Trade Organization")(WTO). 

These laws give the president the power to raise tariffs if foreign countries are found to be engaged in unfair trading practices, or if imported goods are deemed to be threatening critical domestic industries and thus harming national security. They also allow the president to impose tariffs if domestic industries are “seriously injured” by import competition, even if there is no alleged foul play.

Many presidents have exercised these powers, though Trump has done so to a far greater extent than most of his predecessors. In his first term, he imposed tariffs affecting hundreds of billions of dollars worth of goods from China and some U.S. allies, including members of the European Union (EU), and in the opening weeks of his second term he has [further expanded their use](https://www.nytimes.com/2025/01/28/us/politics/trump-tariffs-colombia-canada-greenland.html "further expanded their use"). Biden, for his part, maintained tariffs on China and introduced several of his own while reining in tariffs on EU member countries.

WTO members are supposed to keep their tariffs below an agreed level, or bound rate, which varies among countries. (Developing countries are generally permitted to have higher tariffs.) When a country wins a dispute at the WTO, it is often allowed to impose retaliatory tariffs to pressure the losing country to change its policies. Some experts say that the organization’s [credibility has been damaged](https://www.cfr.org/in-brief/whats-next-us-trade-china?utm_medium=social_share&utm_source=tw "credibility has been damaged") by Trump’s—and then Biden’s—decisions to bypass the WTO and unilaterally impose tariffs.

## What are the aims of tariffs?

Tariffs in most cases are intended to protect local industries by making imports more expensive and driving consumers to domestic producers. In the United States, several politically sensitive industries benefit from such tariffs: sugar producers have been [protected by tariffs](https://www.cato.org/policy-analysis/candy-coated-cartel-time-kill-us-sugar-program "protected by tariffs") since 1789—two years after the signing of the U.S. constitution—and the auto industry has benefited from the so-called chicken tax since 1964, which places 25 percent tariffs on [some pickup trucks](https://www.taxpolicycenter.org/taxvox/does-chicken-tax-encourage-people-purchase-larger-trucks "some pickup trucks"). Additionally, tariffs are used to shield domestic industries from foreign countries’ unfair trading practices and, in some cases, for national security purposes. They can also be a tool of [industrial policy](https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/industrial-policy-making-comeback "industrial policy").

> Tariffs are intended to protect local industries by making imports more expensive and driving consumers to domestic producers. 

_Unfair trading practices_. Some tariffs are meant to counteract specific measures taken by foreign countries or firms. For instance, the United States applies “countervailing duties” when another country subsidizes a domestic industry—allowing its exporters to sell products at a lower price than they would otherwise be able to in a free market—and thereby undercuts U.S. producers. “Antidumping” tariffs are applied when a U.S. firm proves that a foreign firm is selling products in the United States at lower prices than they charge at home, often in an attempt to drive competitors out of an industry before raising prices. In both of these cases, tariffs are meant as a penalty that allows domestic producers to compete as if the market had not been distorted. Critics, however, claim that even these tariffs are often [disguised protectionist policies](https://www.cato.org/commentary/dumping-doesnt-mean-what-you-think-it-means "disguised protectionist policies").

In 2018, under the auspices of Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974, the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR) [issued a report](https://ustr.gov/sites/default/files/Section%20301%20FINAL.PDF "issued a report") [PDF] detailing how China’s intellectual property (IP) practices were “unreasonable or discriminatory, and burden or restrict U.S. commerce.” These included pressuring American companies to hand over their IP as a condition for doing business in China, known as forced technology transfer. On the basis of the report, Trump imposed a slew of tariffs, ultimately covering roughly $360 billion worth of imports from China. The Biden administration largely kept these tariffs in place. 

Biden also used Section 301 to impose new tariffs. In May 2024, he used the authority to target $18 billion worth of Chinese goods, including steel and aluminum, semiconductors, and electric vehicles and other green technologies—sectors that CFR expert Brad W. Setser [says are viewed](https://www.cfr.org/event/virtual-media-briefing-us-tariffs-chinese-imports "says are viewed") as “critical for America’s economic future.” Other analysts say the [administration imposed these tariffs](https://www.cfr.org/blog/election-2024-biden-raises-tariffs-china "administration imposed these tariffs") to protect the United States’ burgeoning green energy industry from a glut of subsidized Chinese products, in addition to supporting [broader efforts](https://www.wired.com/story/new-us-rule-aims-to-block-chinas-access-to-ai-chips-and-models-by-restricting-the-world/ "broader efforts") by the Biden administration, including export controls, to stem the sale of the most advanced artificial intelligence (AI) technology to China.

_National security_. In some strategic industries, often for goods with military uses, tariffs can be used to ensure a country does not rely on trade for its supply of critical products. Most notably, Section 232 of the Trade Expansion Act of 1962 allows the president to raise tariffs on certain goods for national security reasons. 

To curb [China’s massive steel production](https://www.piie.com/blogs/china-economic-watch/chinas-excess-capacity-steel-fresh-look "China’s massive steel production"), Trump used this law to raise tariffs on steel and aluminum imports from China, as well as from allies including Canada and the EU, leading to accusations that national security was being used as a pretext for protectionism. (Tariffs on Canada and Mexico were later dropped as part of the [U.S.-Mexico-Canada Agreement](https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/naftas-economic-impact "U.S.-Mexico-Canada Agreement"), and Biden lifted tariffs on EU member countries.) The use of Section 232 is [particularly controversial](https://www.cato.org/policy-analysis/closing-pandoras-box-growing-abuse-national-security-rationale-restricting-trade "particularly controversial"), experts say, because it exploits an exception to WTO rules for actions taken in the name of national security. 

Trump has also [drawn on the authority](https://www.politico.com/newsletters/weekly-trade/2025/01/27/trump-backtracks-on-tariffs-again-00200669 "drawn on the authority") of the 1977 International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA) to pressure countries who refuse to take back deported migrants; this justification featured in Trump’s [2019 threats](https://www.politico.com/news/2024/09/01/trump-universal-tariff-threat-00176746 "2019 threats") to levy tariffs on Mexico and again in the January 2025 spat with Colombia over Bogotá’s reluctance to accept deportation flights. The IEEPA gives the president expanded authority to regulate international commerce in the event of an emergency, which Trump has declared with respect to immigration at the U.S. southern border. Meanwhile, he has also threatened tariffs for a range of other national security justifications, including on Denmark due to Trump’s stated desire for the United States to acquire Greenland, a self-governing territory of Denmark.

_Economic competitiveness_. Some support for tariffs stems from a grand vision for how to build an economy. Alexander Hamilton, the nation’s first treasury secretary, asserted that tariffs are necessary, at least temporarily, to nourish “infant industries” in the United States until they grow strong enough to compete abroad, at which point the taxes can be removed. Variations of this argument have been advanced throughout U.S. history. They have gained credence again in recent years, especially after [high-profile supply-chain failures](https://www.cfr.org/article/what-happened-supply-chains-2021 "high-profile supply-chain failures") during the COVID-19 pandemic. Both Trump and Biden have cited tariffs as an effective tool for reducing the U.S. trade deficit and bringing manufacturing jobs back to the United States.

## Who pays?

Importers pay tariffs to their home government, but most economists find that the bulk of tariff costs are passed on to consumers. This is particularly true for industries with small profit margins, such as retail. Critics say poor Americans [are hit the hardest](https://www.piie.com/blogs/trade-and-investment-policy-watch/tariffs-hit-poor-americans-hardest "are hit the hardest"), and [recent research](https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w29315/w29315.pdf "recent research") [PDF] has found that U.S. consumers have indeed “borne the brunt” of the tariffs on Chinese goods through higher prices. Still other studies have pointed to different costs for consumers: with tariffs on their foreign competitors, domestic producers can safely raise their prices. Ultimately, consumers share the burden with importers. 

At the same time, tariffs can [harm exporters](https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2022/march/retaliatory-tariffs-reduced-u-s-states-exports-of-agricultural-commodities/ "harm exporters"), who may cut prices to hold on to their market share. If exporters do not cut prices, their products can become relatively more expensive, causing sales to slump. Both cutting and maintaining prices can cause profits to fall and potentially damage the exporting country’s economy.

The effect is particularly worrisome for countries whose economies are export-driven, including many of those in Asia. China became the world’s largest exporter in 2009, and Vietnam has become a hub for low-cost manufacturing exports. Some high-income countries, such as Germany, also rely on exports to support their growth. Companies in countries that depend on exports for growth can lose customers when hit with tariffs, resulting in strong economic headwinds. Some research has shown that U.S. tariffs [have led to modest contractions](https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/impact-us-china-tariff-war-chinas-economy-new-evidence-night-time-lights "have led to modest contractions") in China’s economic growth, though the effects are difficult to measure since growth was already slowing before the tariffs took effect.

## What is the impact on tariff-wielding countries?

Many experts challenge the logic behind tariffs and argue that they hurt more industries than they help, saying that tariffs act as an economic drag in the countries using them. When consumers pay the bulk of tariff costs, it makes them effectively poorer because prices are higher. 

According to this view, firms that use domestic products as inputs also see their purchasing power shrink, as tariffs allow domestic producers to raise prices. For example, as automakers pay more for steel, economists suggest they are likely to shed more workers than steel mills will hire. A 2020 study by economists at Harvard University and the University of California, Davis found that tariffs on steel and aluminum [had likely resulted](https://econofact.org/steel-tariffs-and-u-s-jobs-revisited "had likely resulted") in seventy-five thousand fewer manufacturing jobs in steel-using industries while creating just one thousand jobs in steel production. 

Other experts contend that tariffs shrink the economy: the Tax Foundation, which is generally skeptical of tariffs, estimates that the combination of Trump and Biden’s tariffs so far [will lower](https://taxfoundation.org/research/all/federal/tariffs-trump-trade-war/ "will lower") U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) by 0.2 percent and reduce employment by some 142,000 jobs.

Tariff critics also warn about retaliatory tariffs. These place the country that first levied tariffs on the other side of the equation and ensure that both its consumers and its export industries will be hit. China responded to Trump’s tariffs in kind, while U.S. allies, including Canada and the EU, retaliated against the levies on steel and aluminum products. Countries often target the sensitive U.S. agriculture sector, which is reliant on exports.

Still, economists and politicians on both the left and the right increasingly favor tariffs. A [2022 analysis](https://www.epi.org/blog/tariff-increases-did-not-cause-inflation-and-their-removal-would-undermine-domestic-supply-chains/ "2022 analysis") by economists at the Economic Policy Institute, a pro-labor think tank, found that Trump’s tariffs helped “reshore” supply chains in strategic industries, and that reducing them “would have only a minimal and transitory impact” on U.S. price levels. Republican strategists [generally argue](https://www.wsj.com/economy/trade/why-trump-is-right-about-tariffs-3cad4097?mod=article_inline "generally argue") that tariffs create good jobs, increase economic growth, and decrease trade deficits.

Many other Democrats agree that tariffs are good for American workers; the Biden administration also contended that tariffs are necessary to build up the U.S. green energy industry, which it argued will be integral to slowing climate change. In February 2024, Senator Josh Hawley (R-MO) introduced legislation to increase tariffs on U.S. imports of Chinese cars to 100 percent; Biden raised tariffs on Chinese electric vehicles to that level three months later.

## What can countries do to mitigate the effects of tariffs?

The most common way for countries to fight back against tariffs—aside from levying retaliatory tariffs—is to subsidize the domestic industries that have been hit. The first Trump administration countered tariffs on agricultural products by [providing farmers](https://www.politico.com/news/2020/07/14/donald-trump-coronavirus-farmer-bailouts-359932 "providing farmers") with tens of billions of dollars in aid to make up for lost exports. Many economists [criticized this strategy](https://www.usnews.com/opinion/economic-intelligence/articles/2017-05-04/to-save-money-donald-trump-should-cut-farm-subsidies-over-foreign-aid "criticized this strategy") as counterproductive and wasteful. Some fear that recipients come to rely on such assistance programs, making them difficult to end.

Some experts suggest that export-dependent countries could let their currencies depreciate in the face of tariffs. This would effectively cheapen exports and make them competitive despite tariffs. But it would also make consumers in that country poorer, as the local currency would have less purchasing power. Another remedy is to find alternative markets for imports and exports. Trump encouraged this, suggesting that companies facing tariffs on imports from China turn to Vietnam and other countries for their products. However, in testimony to the USTR’s office, many U.S. businesses complained that they were unable to quickly shift to sourcing products from outside of China, given the country’s dominance in manufacturing consumer products, and were therefore forced to pay the tariffs.

> Once imposed, tariffs are difficult to remove because companies become used to the new environment and lobby against lifting them, experts say.

Ultimately, it might not be possible to reverse their effects. Once imposed, tariffs are difficult to remove because companies become used to the new environment and lobby against lifting them, experts say. The chicken tax on pickup trucks, for example, was imposed during a trade spat with the EU in 1964, yet has remained in place. If tariffs lead trading partners to find new buyers and sellers, those new relationships can endure.

## Recommended Resources

This timeline by the Peterson Institute for International Economics [tracked Trump’s major actions on trade](https://www.piie.com/blogs/trade-investment-policy-watch/trump-trade-war-china-date-guide).

CFR experts Matthew P. Goodman, Zongyuan Zoe Liu, and Brad W. Setser [discuss Biden’s China tariffs](https://www.cfr.org/event/virtual-media-briefing-us-tariffs-chinese-imports) in this media briefing.

Dartmouth College economist Douglas A. Irwin traces the history of U.S. trade policy in his book [_Clashing Over Commerce_](https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/C/bo24475328.html). 

_The_ _Economist_ examines the changing global trade landscape in [this special report](https://www.economist.com/special-report/2024/05/03/the-global-financial-system-is-in-danger-of-fragmenting).

For _Foreign Affairs_ , former U.S. Trade Representative Robert E. Lighthizer [defends the Trump administration’s approach](https://www.foreignaffairs.com/responses/after-free-trade) to trade.

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url: http://arxiv.org/abs/1702.01796v1
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[1702.01796v1] On the Efficiency of Connection Charges---Part II: Integration of Distributed Energy Resources

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# Mathematics > Optimization and Control

**arXiv:1702.01796v1** (math) 

[Submitted on 6 Feb 2017]

# Title:On the Efficiency of Connection Charges---Part II: Integration of Distributed Energy Resources

Authors:[Daniel Munoz-Alvarez](https://arxiv.org/search/math?searchtype=author&query=Munoz-Alvarez,+D), [Juan F. Garcia-Franco](https://arxiv.org/search/math?searchtype=author&query=Garcia-Franco,+J+F), [Lang Tong](https://arxiv.org/search/math?searchtype=author&query=Tong,+L)

View a PDF of the paper titled On the Efficiency of Connection Charges---Part II: Integration of Distributed Energy Resources, by Daniel Munoz-Alvarez and 2 other authors

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> Abstract:This two-part paper addresses the design of retail electricity tariffs for distribution systems with distributed energy resources (DERs). Part I presents a framework to optimize an ex-ante two-part tariff for a regulated monopolistic retailer who faces stochastic wholesale prices on the one hand and stochastic demand on the other. In Part II, the integration of DERs is addressed by analyzing their endogenous effect on the optimal two-part tariff and the induced welfare gains. Two DER integration models are considered: (i) a decentralized model involving behind-the-meter DERs in a net metering setting, and (ii) a centralized model involving DERs integrated by the retailer. It is shown that DERs integrated under either model can achieve the same social welfare and the net-metering tariff structure is optimal. The retail prices under both integration models are equal and reflect the expected wholesale prices. The connection charges differ and are affected by the retailer's fixed costs as well as the statistical dependencies between wholesale prices and behind-the-meter DERs. In particular, the connection charge of the decentralized model is generally higher than that of the centralized model. An empirical analysis is presented to estimate the impact of DER on welfare distribution and inter-class cross-subsidies using real price and demand data and simulations. The analysis shows that, with the prevailing retail pricing and net-metering, consumer welfare decreases with the level of DER integration. Issues of cross-subsidy and practical drawbacks of decentralized integration are also discussed. 

Comments: | 11 pages, 3 figures  
---|---  
Subjects: |  Optimization and Control (math.OC); Probability (math.PR)  
MSC classes: | 91B24, 91B06  
Cite as: | [arXiv:1702.01796](https://arxiv.org/abs/1702.01796) [math.OC]  
  | (or  [arXiv:1702.01796v1](https://arxiv.org/abs/1702.01796v1) [math.OC] for this version)   
  |  <https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1702.01796> Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite  
  
## Submission history

From: Daniel Munoz-Alvarez [[view email](/show-email/5e574d22/1702.01796)]   
**[v1]** Mon, 6 Feb 2017 21:23:24 UTC (359 KB)  


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url: http://arxiv.org/abs/2203.12173v2
title: [2203.12173v2] The Impact of Geopolitical Conflicts on Trade, Growth, and Innovation
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# Economics > General Economics

**arXiv:2203.12173v2** (econ) 

[Submitted on 23 Mar 2022 ([v1](https://arxiv.org/abs/2203.12173v1)), last revised 30 Jan 2023 (this version, v2)]

# Title:The Impact of Geopolitical Conflicts on Trade, Growth, and Innovation

Authors:[Carlos Góes](https://arxiv.org/search/econ?searchtype=author&query=G%C3%B3es,+C), [Eddy Bekkers](https://arxiv.org/search/econ?searchtype=author&query=Bekkers,+E)

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> Abstract:Geopolitical conflicts have increasingly been a driver of trade policy. We study the potential effects of global and persistent geopolitical conflicts on trade, technological innovation, and economic growth. In conventional trade models the welfare costs of such conflicts are modest. We build a multi-sector multi-region general equilibrium model with dynamic sector-specific knowledge diffusion, which magnifies welfare losses of trade conflicts. Idea diffusion is mediated by the input-output structure of production, such that both sector cost shares and import trade shares characterize the source distribution of ideas. Using this framework, we explore the potential impact of a "decoupling of the global economy," a hypothetical scenario under which technology systems would diverge in the global economy. We divide the global economy into two geopolitical blocs -- East and West -- based on foreign policy similarity and model decoupling through an increase in iceberg trade costs (full decoupling) or tariffs (tariff decoupling). Results yield three main insights. First, the projected welfare losses for the global economy of a decoupling scenario can be drastic, as large as 15% in some regions and are largest in the lower income regions as they would benefit less from technology spillovers from richer areas. Second, the described size and pattern of welfare effects are specific to the model with diffusion of ideas. Without diffusion of ideas the size and variation across regions of the welfare losses would be substantially smaller. Third, a multi-sector framework exacerbates diffusion inefficiencies induced by trade costs relative to a single-sector one. 

Comments: | 54 pages, 14 figures  
---|---  
Subjects: |  General Economics (econ.GN)  
Cite as: | [arXiv:2203.12173](https://arxiv.org/abs/2203.12173) [econ.GN]  
  | (or  [arXiv:2203.12173v2](https://arxiv.org/abs/2203.12173v2) [econ.GN] for this version)   
  |  <https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2203.12173> Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite  
  
## Submission history

From: Carlos Góes [[view email](/show-email/1218b34e/2203.12173)]   
**[[v1]](/abs/2203.12173v1)** Wed, 23 Mar 2022 03:30:41 UTC (3,151 KB)  
**[v2]** Mon, 30 Jan 2023 03:03:41 UTC (3,408 KB)  


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url: http://arxiv.org/abs/2109.15198v1
title: [2109.15198v1] Nonlinear Prices, Homogeneous Goods, Search
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# Economics > Theoretical Economics

**arXiv:2109.15198v1** (econ) 

[Submitted on 30 Sep 2021]

# Title:Nonlinear Prices, Homogeneous Goods, Search

Authors:[Atabek Atayev](https://arxiv.org/search/econ?searchtype=author&query=Atayev,+A)

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> Abstract:We analyze competition on nonlinear prices in homogeneous goods markets with consumer search. In equilibrium firms offer two-part tariffs consisting of a linear price and lump-sum fee. The equilibrium production is socially efficient as the linear price of equilibrium two-part tariffs equals to the production marginal cost. Firms thus compete in lump-sum fees, which are dispersed in equilibrium. We show that sellers enjoy higher profit, whereas consumers are worse-off with two-part tariffs than with linear prices. The competition softens because with two-part tariffs firms can make effective per-consumer demand less elastic than the actual demand. 

Subjects: |  Theoretical Economics (econ.TH)  
---|---  
Cite as: | [arXiv:2109.15198](https://arxiv.org/abs/2109.15198) [econ.TH]  
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**[v1]** Thu, 30 Sep 2021 15:16:05 UTC (20 KB)  


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[1610.08415v1] A Comparison of Various Electricity Tariff Price Forecasting Techniques in Turkey and Identifying the Impact of Time Series Periods

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# Quantitative Finance > Statistical Finance

**arXiv:1610.08415v1** (q-fin) 

[Submitted on 18 Aug 2016]

# Title:A Comparison of Various Electricity Tariff Price Forecasting Techniques in Turkey and Identifying the Impact of Time Series Periods

Authors:[T.O. Benli](https://arxiv.org/search/q-fin?searchtype=author&query=Benli,+T)

View a PDF of the paper titled A Comparison of Various Electricity Tariff Price Forecasting Techniques in Turkey and Identifying the Impact of Time Series Periods, by T.O. Benli

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> Abstract:It is very vital for suppliers and distributors to predict the deregulated electricity prices for creating their bidding strategies in the competitive market area. Pre requirement of succeeding in this field, accurate and suitable electricity tariff price forecasting tools are needed. In the presence of effective forecasting tools, taking the decisions of production, merchandising, maintenance and investment with the aim of maximizing the profits and benefits can be successively and effectively done. According to the electricity demand, there are four various electricity tariffs pricing in Turkey; monochromic, day, peak and night. The objective is find the best suitable tool for predicting the four pricing periods of electricity and produce short term forecasts (one year ahead-monthly). Our approach based on finding the best model, which ensures the smallest forecasting error measurements of: MAPE, MAD and MSD. We conduct a comparison of various forecasting approaches in total accounts for nine teen, at least all of those have different aspects of methodology. Our beginning step was doing forecasts for the year 2015. We validated and analyzed the performance of our best model and made comparisons to see how well the historical values of 2015 and forecasted data for that specific period matched. Results show that given the time-series data, the recommended models provided good forecasts. Second part of practice, we also include the year 2015, and compute all the models with the time series of January 2011 to December 2015. Again by choosing the best appropriate forecasting model, we conducted the forecast process and also analyze the impact of enhancing of time series periods (January 2007 to December 2015) to model that we used for forecasting process. 

Subjects: |  Statistical Finance (q-fin.ST)  
---|---  
Cite as: | [arXiv:1610.08415](https://arxiv.org/abs/1610.08415) [q-fin.ST]  
  | (or  [arXiv:1610.08415v1](https://arxiv.org/abs/1610.08415v1) [q-fin.ST] for this version)   
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## Submission history

From: Olgu Benli [[view email](/show-email/a66852ca/1610.08415)]   
**[v1]** Thu, 18 Aug 2016 07:16:08 UTC (679 KB)  


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url: http://arxiv.org/abs/2403.12215v2
title: [2403.12215v2] Aggregate Peak EV Charging Demand: The Impact of Segmented Network Tariffs
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# Electrical Engineering and Systems Science > Systems and Control

**arXiv:2403.12215v2** (eess) 

[Submitted on 18 Mar 2024 ([v1](https://arxiv.org/abs/2403.12215v1)), last revised 2 Apr 2024 (this version, v2)]

# Title:Aggregate Peak EV Charging Demand: The Impact of Segmented Network Tariffs

Authors:[Nanda Kishor Panda](https://arxiv.org/search/eess?searchtype=author&query=Panda,+N+K), [Na Li](https://arxiv.org/search/eess?searchtype=author&query=Li,+N), [Simon H. Tindemans](https://arxiv.org/search/eess?searchtype=author&query=Tindemans,+S+H)

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> Abstract:Aggregate peak Electric Vehicle (EV) charging demand is a matter of growing concern for network operators as it severely limits the network's capacity, preventing its reliable operation. Various tariff schemes have been proposed to limit peak demand by incentivizing flexible asset users to shift their demand from peak periods. However, fewer studies quantify the effect of these tariff schemes on the aggregate level. In this paper, we compare the effect of a multi-level segmented network tariff with and without dynamic energy prices for individual EV users on the aggregate peak demand. Results based on real charging transactions from over 1200 public charging points in the Netherlands show that the segmented network tariff with flat energy prices results in more diverse load profiles with increasing aggregation, as compared to cost-optimized dispatch based on only dynamic day-ahead energy prices. When paired with dynamic energy prices, the segmented tariff still outperforms only dynamic energy price-based tariffs in reducing peaks. Results show that a balance between power thresholds and price per threshold is crucial in designing a suitable tariff, taking into account the needs of the power network. We also provide valuable insights to network operators by calculating the diversity factor for various peak demands per charging point. 

Comments: | 6 pages, 4 figures, 2 columns  
---|---  
Subjects: |  Systems and Control (eess.SY)  
Cite as: | [arXiv:2403.12215](https://arxiv.org/abs/2403.12215) [eess.SY]  
  | (or  [arXiv:2403.12215v2](https://arxiv.org/abs/2403.12215v2) [eess.SY] for this version)   
  |  <https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2403.12215> Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite  
  
## Submission history

From: Nanda Kishor Panda [[view email](/show-email/ce8f8357/2403.12215)]   
**[[v1]](/abs/2403.12215v1)** Mon, 18 Mar 2024 19:59:05 UTC (1,410 KB)  
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url: http://arxiv.org/abs/2302.00417v1
title: [2302.00417v1] How exporters neutralized an increase in tariffs
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# Economics > General Economics

**arXiv:2302.00417v1** (econ) 

[Submitted on 1 Feb 2023]

# Title:How exporters neutralized an increase in tariffs

Authors:[Asier Minondo](https://arxiv.org/search/econ?searchtype=author&query=Minondo,+A)

View a PDF of the paper titled How exporters neutralized an increase in tariffs, by Asier Minondo

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> Abstract:I use the unanticipated and large additional tariffs the US imposed on European Union products due to the Airbus-Boeing conflict to analyze how exporters reacted to a change in trade policy. Using firm-level data for Spain and applying a difference-in-differences methodology, I show that the export revenue in the US of the firms affected by the tariff hike did not significantly decrease relative to the one of other Spanish exporters to the US. I show that Spanish exporters were able to neutralize the increase in tariffs by substituting Spanish products with products originated in countries unaffected by tariffs and shifting to varieties not affected by tariffs. My results show that tariff avoidance is another margin exporters can use to counteract the effects of a tariff hike. 

Subjects: |  General Economics (econ.GN)  
---|---  
Cite as: | [arXiv:2302.00417](https://arxiv.org/abs/2302.00417) [econ.GN]  
  | (or  [arXiv:2302.00417v1](https://arxiv.org/abs/2302.00417v1) [econ.GN] for this version)   
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**[v1]** Wed, 1 Feb 2023 13:02:59 UTC (58 KB)  


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url: http://arxiv.org/abs/2502.09289v1
title: [2502.09289v1] Trade and pollution: Evidence from India
scrape_date: 2025-02-28T17:32:22.554644
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# Economics > General Economics

**arXiv:2502.09289v1** (econ) 

[Submitted on 13 Feb 2025]

# Title:Trade and pollution: Evidence from India

Authors:[Malin Niemi](https://arxiv.org/search/econ?searchtype=author&query=Niemi,+M), [Nicklas Nordfors](https://arxiv.org/search/econ?searchtype=author&query=Nordfors,+N), [Anna Tompsett](https://arxiv.org/search/econ?searchtype=author&query=Tompsett,+A)

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> Abstract:What happens to pollution when developing countries open their borders to trade? Theoretical predictions are ambiguous, and empirical evidence remains limited. We study the effects of the 1991 Indian trade liberalization reform on water pollution. The reform abruptly and unexpectedly lowered import tariffs, increasing exposure to trade. Larger tariff reductions are associated with relative increases in water pollution. The estimated effects imply a 0.12 standard deviation increase in water pollution for the median district exposed to the tariff reform. 

Subjects: |  General Economics (econ.GN)  
---|---  
Cite as: | [arXiv:2502.09289](https://arxiv.org/abs/2502.09289) [econ.GN]  
  | (or  [arXiv:2502.09289v1](https://arxiv.org/abs/2502.09289v1) [econ.GN] for this version)   
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## Submission history

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**[v1]** Thu, 13 Feb 2025 13:05:35 UTC (2,464 KB)  


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url: http://arxiv.org/abs/1904.06757v1
title: [1904.06757v1] Price Setting on a Network
scrape_date: 2025-02-28T17:32:22.593946
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# Computer Science > Computer Science and Game Theory

**arXiv:1904.06757v1** (cs) 

[Submitted on 14 Apr 2019]

# Title:Price Setting on a Network

Authors:[Toomas Hinnosaar](https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Hinnosaar,+T)

View a PDF of the paper titled Price Setting on a Network, by Toomas Hinnosaar

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> Abstract:Most products are produced and sold by supply chain networks, where an interconnected network of producers and intermediaries set prices to maximize their profits. I show that there exists a unique equilibrium in a price-setting game on a network. The key distortion reducing both total profits and social welfare is multiple-marginalization, which is magnified by strategic interactions. Individual profits are proportional to influentiality, which is a new measure of network centrality defined by the equilibrium characterization. The results emphasize the importance of the network structure when considering policy questions such as mergers or trade tariffs. 

Subjects: |  Computer Science and Game Theory (cs.GT); General Economics (econ.GN); Theoretical Economics (econ.TH)  
---|---  
Cite as: | [arXiv:1904.06757](https://arxiv.org/abs/1904.06757) [cs.GT]  
  | (or  [arXiv:1904.06757v1](https://arxiv.org/abs/1904.06757v1) [cs.GT] for this version)   
  |  <https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1904.06757> Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite  
  
## Submission history

From: Toomas Hinnosaar [[view email](/show-email/7014ae84/1904.06757)]   
**[v1]** Sun, 14 Apr 2019 20:49:43 UTC (145 KB)  


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url: http://arxiv.org/abs/2408.13706v1
scrape_date: 2025-02-28T17:32:22.559885
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hash: 9884b83b0e8a83062f14f9d5995c7b948587cfb6d69b9ecd2f91d3b1be3a48b8
title:
[2408.13706v1] Import competition and domestic vertical integration: Theory and Evidence from Chinese firms

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# Economics > General Economics

**arXiv:2408.13706v1** (econ) 

[Submitted on 25 Aug 2024]

# Title:Import competition and domestic vertical integration: Theory and Evidence from Chinese firms

Authors:[Xin Du](https://arxiv.org/search/econ?searchtype=author&query=Du,+X), [Xiaoxia Shi](https://arxiv.org/search/econ?searchtype=author&query=Shi,+X)

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> Abstract:What impact does import competition have on firms' production organizational choices? Existing literature has predominantly focused on the relationship between import competition and firms' global production networks, with less attention given to domestic. We first develop a Nash-bargaining model to guide our empirical analysis, then utilize tariff changes as an exogenous shock to test our theoretical hypotheses using a database of Chinese listed firms from 2000 to 2023. Our findings indicate that a decrease in downstream tariffs lead to an increase in vertical integration. In our mechanism tests, we discover that a reduction in upstream tariffs also enhances this effect. Moreover, the impact of tariff reductions on vertical integration is primarily observed in industries with high asset specificity, indicating that asset-specificity is a crucial mechanism. We further explore whether import competition encourages vertical integration for technological acquisition purpose, the effect is found only among high-tech firms, while it's absent in non-high-tech firms. Our research provides new perspectives and evidence on how firms optimize their production organization in the process of globalization. 

Comments: | 30 pages, 4 figures, manuscript  
---|---  
Subjects: |  General Economics (econ.GN)  
Cite as: | [arXiv:2408.13706](https://arxiv.org/abs/2408.13706) [econ.GN]  
  | (or  [arXiv:2408.13706v1](https://arxiv.org/abs/2408.13706v1) [econ.GN] for this version)   
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## Submission history

From: Du Xin [[view email](/show-email/8ae5289f/2408.13706)]   
**[v1]** Sun, 25 Aug 2024 02:32:27 UTC (143 KB)  


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url: http://arxiv.org/abs/2202.05517v1
title: [2202.05517v1] Electricity Consumption Forecasting for Out-of-distribution Time-of-Use Tariffs
scrape_date: 2025-02-28T17:32:22.559861
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# Computer Science > Machine Learning

**arXiv:2202.05517v1** (cs) 

[Submitted on 11 Feb 2022]

# Title:Electricity Consumption Forecasting for Out-of-distribution Time-of-Use Tariffs

Authors:[Jyoti Narwariya](https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Narwariya,+J), [Chetan Verma](https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Verma,+C), [Pankaj Malhotra](https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Malhotra,+P), [Lovekesh Vig](https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Vig,+L), [Easwara Subramanian](https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Subramanian,+E), [Sanjay Bhat](https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Bhat,+S)

View a PDF of the paper titled Electricity Consumption Forecasting for Out-of-distribution Time-of-Use Tariffs, by Jyoti Narwariya and 5 other authors

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> Abstract:In electricity markets, retailers or brokers want to maximize profits by allocating tariff profiles to end consumers. One of the objectives of such demand response management is to incentivize the consumers to adjust their consumption so that the overall electricity procurement in the wholesale markets is minimized, e.g. it is desirable that consumers consume less during peak hours when cost of procurement for brokers from wholesale markets are high. We consider a greedy solution to maximize the overall profit for brokers by optimal tariff profile allocation. This in-turn requires forecasting electricity consumption for each user for all tariff profiles. This forecasting problem is challenging compared to standard forecasting problems due to following reasons: i. the number of possible combinations of hourly tariffs is high and retailers may not have considered all combinations in the past resulting in a biased set of tariff profiles tried in the past, ii. the profiles allocated in the past to each user is typically based on certain policy. These reasons violate the standard i.i.d. assumptions, as there is a need to evaluate new tariff profiles on existing customers and historical data is biased by the policies used in the past for tariff allocation. In this work, we consider several scenarios for forecasting and optimization under these conditions. We leverage the underlying structure of how consumers respond to variable tariff rates by comparing tariffs across hours and shifting loads, and propose suitable inductive biases in the design of deep neural network based architectures for forecasting under such scenarios. More specifically, we leverage attention mechanisms and permutation equivariant networks that allow desirable processing of tariff profiles to learn tariff representations that are insensitive to the biases in the data and still representative of the task. 

Comments: | Accepted paper at AAAI workshop AIBSD 2022  
---|---  
Subjects: |  Machine Learning (cs.LG)  
Cite as: | [arXiv:2202.05517](https://arxiv.org/abs/2202.05517) [cs.LG]  
  | (or  [arXiv:2202.05517v1](https://arxiv.org/abs/2202.05517v1) [cs.LG] for this version)   
  |  <https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2202.05517> Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite  
  
## Submission history

From: Jyoti Narwariya [[view email](/show-email/df56cf9c/2202.05517)]   
**[v1]** Fri, 11 Feb 2022 09:13:55 UTC (6,660 KB)  


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# How Could Tariffs Affect Consumers, Business and the Economy?

## UC Davis economists discuss the past, present and potential future of tariffs in the US.

  * by Alex Russell
  * February 18, 2025



![Photo of a large container ship, seen from the stern, and docked next to a large crane. Many other containers are stacked high on the dock, and the lower trusses of a green bridge can be seen spanning over the ship and port.](/sites/default/files/styles/sf_landscape_16x9/public/media/images/port-of-los-angeles-container-ship.jpg?h=854a7be2&itok=ECzXPwAT) Port of Los Angeles (Getty)

Tariffs on goods imported to the U.S. are not new, but today they are being discussed as much broader tools in a more complicated world.

Since before the Constitution was signed, tariffs have reduced the competitiveness of American enterprise and increased the cost of goods. Today, they are proposed to bring back U.S. manufacturing jobs to communities that provided the president his strongest support while also being leveraged as expansive geopolitical tools with uncertain consequences.

“I think there are broader questions of political economy surrounding tariff proposals today,” said Katheryn Russ, a professor of economics in the College of Letters and Science at UC Davis and leading expert on international economics. “You might say tariffs can resolve issues of inequality, but it’s really the net outcome of all the tax, social safety net and spending policies that determine whether this administration favors non-college educated workers.”

## **What is a tariff?  **

A tariff is a type of tax a government adds to imported goods. Companies importing goods pay the tariff to the government. If any part of a product arrived with a tariff, whether it’s an imported banana or a car built locally with imported steel, its cost is part of the price everyday consumers pay before sales tax.

“You don't see tariffs up front at the store and you don't see them on the receipt, but they're embedded in the price of the good,” said Russ, who recently co-authored a chapter on tariffs and the macroeconomy in the forthcoming _Oxford Encyclopedia of International Economics  _(Oxford University Press). 

Tariffs increase the price of some goods, but their additional cost is hidden partly because so much of what we buy today is made of parts and materials from across a global value chain. Raw materials, assembled components and even the design for a single product might be sourced from across multiple countries.

“When we put tariffs on imported goods, the costs of these tariffs are embedded in the price of what we buy in very complicated ways,” said Russ. 

## **How do tariffs affect consumers?  **

Tariffs affect consumers in two main ways. First, they increase the cost of what we buy when the added cost, which companies pay as a tax to the federal government, gets passed on to consumers. Second, they might reduce the range of products available by making some importation unprofitable.

![Closeup photo of a woman's hands holding a store receipt to read it. Grocery store shelves are in the background.](/sites/default/files/media/images/store-receipt.jpg)

(Getty)

“Consumers are probably going to have to pay higher prices, and they may even have a lower range of choices at the store because some things just become too expensive to bother importing,” said Christopher Meissner, a professor of economics in the College of Letters and Science at UC Davis.

Meissner is a leading expert on international trade. His recent book, _One from the Many: The Global Economy Since 1850  _(Oxford University Press, 2024), details the economic history of the global economy, grounding the idea of globalization in the technologies that made it possible.

In the end, tariffs could increase the overall cost of living.

“Once you start raising the prices on imports, that's just going to raise the cost of living, and wages are going to have to respond to offset some of those higher costs,” said Meissner. 

## **How do tariffs affect business?**

One argument for tariffs is that they protect domestic companies from foreign competitors that can undercut them on prices. Alexander Hamilton, one of the founding fathers, argued that tariffs and other protections from foreign competition would make U.S. industries more productive and competitive.

![Closeup photo of a clothing label that says Made in USA](/sites/default/files/media/images/made-in-usa-clothing-label.jpg)

(Getty)

Meissner’s [new research](https://lettersandsciencemag.ucdavis.edu/self-society/they-dont-pay-we-do-how-trump-tariffs-might-reshape-us-economy) shows that in the late 1800s, tariffs didn’t make U.S. businesses more productive but had the opposite effect. Meissner’s study of U.S. tariffs from 1870 to 1909 found that an increase in tariffs of 10 percentage points reduced domestic productivity by between 25% and 35%.

“Less competitive industries are less innovative, and less innovative industries are less productive,” said Meissner. “Tariffs probably weakened the incentives to innovate and come up with streamlined processes that keep companies on their toes and productivity high.”

Today, a lot of American jobs depend indirectly on manufacturing, even if that manufacturing takes place abroad. Meissner said that manufacturing is a smaller share of the U.S. Gross Domestic Product, or GDP, compared to what it has been historically. According to the St. Louis Federal Reserve, manufacturing's share of GDP dropped from 28.1% in 1953 to 12% in 2015.

“We design it, we bring it to market, and we do all the engineering here, so those jobs will also be affected by today's tariffs even though it's a more complicated complex international economy than it once was,” said Meissner.

## **How do tariffs affect the national economy?  **

Tariffs affect the national economy today much differently than they ever because of the state of the global economy. The past four decades has seen a steady increase in cheaper international imports, particularly from China, in industries where U.S. manufacturing processes became standardized and thus less tethered to areas with high concentrations of specialized, highly educated workers. 

![Photo of the inside of a factory. Two rows of workers wearing white coats are seated at a long green table and inspect small red tube-like pieces of plastic.](/sites/default/files/media/images/chinese-factory.jpg)

A factory in Xuyi, China (Getty)

In recent research, Russ and coauthors from UC Davis and George Washington University found that this shift to lower-cost production that was increasingly outsourced from the northeastern United States to places further south and west with cheaper labor had already begun by the middle of the 20th century. Then the import surge from China around 1990 sparked a rapid economic unraveling.

“In some communities, the shock of the import surge happened so fast that it basically short circuited this more gradual product cycle that already had been going on for decades,” said Russ.

Russ said the impacts of this shift have been highly concentrated in U.S. communities that already had higher rates of unemployment and fewer college-educated workers. 

“We assumed that our trade adjustment assistance and our social safety net programs would take care of all of this, but in fact it didn't, and we saw really big employment impacts concentrated in some of our most vulnerable communities,” said Russ. 

At the time, tariffs seemed an ideal tool to protect domestic manufacturing from disappearing under the swell of cheaper foreign imports. Today, Russ explained, it’s not that simple. A country like China can evade tariffs by investing in manufacturing or assembly in a different country that is not subject to the same tariffs. Tariffs can quickly lead to an infinite shell game to avoid them.

At the [World Economic Forum in January](https://www.weforum.org/stories/2025/01/davos-2025-special-address-donald-trump-president-united-states/), the president asked countries to make products in the U.S. in exchange for a very low corporate tax rate — or their products will face tariffs to serve the U.S. market. Russ said this idea amounts to an announcement of an across-the-board tariff. 

“All of our trading partners would be affected, so that's an across-the-board tariff,” said Russ. “That is something new that we didn't see in the first Trump administration. He is talking about trying to create a resurgence of different industries inside the United States by building a wall of tariffs to reduce imports.”

## **What are the potential consequences of Trump’s tariff plan?**

Tariffs today are being discussed as more than tools to protect U.S. companies. They are mentioned as a tool for bringing back manufacturing as well as a bargaining tactic in negotiations over [immigration](https://apnews.com/article/trump-tariffs-canada-mexico-colombia-a5ee8bc89b7fbb459ee574c002c90df1) and the flow of [fentanyl](https://www.reuters.com/world/us/trump-places-high-risk-high-reward-bet-tariffs-stem-fentanyl-2024-11-27/).

However tariffs are used, they are likely to be met with retaliation, as China retaliated immediately with their own tariffs once the trade war began in 2018 under the first Trump administration. In February 2025, [China’s government announced](https://apnews.com/article/china-tariffs-us-trump-150fab3a44ec055845e47c82bde544c2) retaliatory tariffs and other measures that affect U.S. business.

“Once we start raising tariffs on our main trading partners as is proposed, they're certainly going to retaliate, and those retaliations will offset many of the positive effects, if there are any,” said Meissner.

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Table of Contents

Expand

Table of Contents

  * What Are Tariffs?

  * Understanding Tariffs

  * How a Tariff Works

  * Who Is Most Impacted by Tariffs?

  * U.S. Tariffs and Free Trade

  * Example

  * FAQs

  * The Bottom Line




  * [Economy](https://www.investopedia.com/economy-4689801)
  * [Economics](https://www.investopedia.com/economics-4689800)



# What Are Tariffs and How Do They Affect You?

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Tariffs 

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CURRENT ARTICLE

  2. [ Tariffs and Trade Barriers ](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/economics/08/tariff-trade-barrier-basics.asp)
  3. [ Trade Wars ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/trade-war.asp)
  4. [ How Would a Trade War Affect You? ](https://www.investopedia.com/insights/how-would-trade-war-affect-you/)
  5. [ Who Has the Highest Tariffs? ](https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/040115/which-countries-have-highest-tariffs.asp)
  6. [ Protectionism ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/protectionism.asp)



Global Players 

  1. [ The Plaza Accord ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/plaza-accord.asp)
  2. [ Currency Wars ](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/forex/042015/what-currency-war-how-does-it-work.asp)
  3. [ Factors Driving the USD ](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/forex/09/factors-drive-american-dollar.asp)
  4. [ Emerging Markets: The Parts of Russia's GDP ](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/120615/emerging-markets-analyzing-russias-gdp.asp)
  5. [ How OPEC (and Non-OPEC) Production Affects Oil Prices ](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/012216/how-opec-and-nonopec-production-affects-oil-prices.asp)
  6. [ BRICS: Acronym for Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/brics.asp)
  7. [ The Economy of Canada ](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/042315/fundamentals-how-canada-makes-its-money.asp)



Currency & Exchange Rates 

  1. [ How Currency Fluctuations Affect the Economy ](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/forex/080613/effects-currency-fluctuations-economy.asp)
  2. [ Devaluation ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/devaluation.asp)
  3. [ Manipulation ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/manipulation.asp)
  4. [ Revaluation ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/revaluation.asp)
  5. [ What is Fiat Money? ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/fiatmoney.asp)
  6. [ Yuan vs. Renminbi: What's the Difference? ](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/forex/061115/yuan-vs-rmb-understanding-difference.asp)
  7. [ What Causes a Currency Crisis? ](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/economics/08/currency-crises.asp)



Cryptocurrencies and Global Trade 

  1. [ South Korea's Ties to Crypto ](https://www.investopedia.com/news/why-south-korea-so-important-bitcoin-prices/)
  2. [ El Salvador Breaks Ground on Crypto ](https://www.investopedia.com/el-salvador-accepts-bitcoin-as-legal-tender-5200470)
  3. [ Sweden Takes First Steps on Crypto ](https://www.investopedia.com/sweden-takes-another-step-toward-a-digital-currency-5092069)



Commodities 

  1. [ What is a Commodity? ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/commodity.asp)
  2. [ Tradable Commodities ](https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/022315/what-are-tradable-commodities.asp)
  3. [ Commodities Index ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/commodityindices.asp)
  4. [ 10 Countries With The Most Natural Resources ](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/markets-economy/090516/10-countries-most-natural-resources.asp)
  5. [ What Causes Oil Prices to Fluctuate? ](https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/012715/what-causes-oil-prices-fluctuate.asp)
  6. [ What is a Crypto Commodity? ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/crypto-commodity.asp)



![Aerial perspective of a container port, shenzhen, china](https://www.investopedia.com/thmb/PYIwV4bMuseS4d22OETKHZZrE1A=/1500x0/filters:no_upscale\(\):max_bytes\(150000\):strip_icc\(\)/GettyImages-1328832142-68a8d5c0975449529757970c3e92fc7a.jpg) ![Aerial perspective of a container port, shenzhen, china](https://www.investopedia.com/thmb/PYIwV4bMuseS4d22OETKHZZrE1A=/1500x0/filters:no_upscale\(\):max_bytes\(150000\):strip_icc\(\)/GettyImages-1328832142-68a8d5c0975449529757970c3e92fc7a.jpg)

A container port in Shenzhen, China.

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##  What Are Tariffs? 

A tariff is a type of tax levied by a country on an imported good at the border. Historically, tariffs have been used by governments to collect additional revenue. But they are also a way for governments to try to protect domestic producers. 

As a protectionist tool, a [tariff](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/tariff.asp) increases the prices of imports. Due to that, consumers may choose to buy other, relatively less expensive domestic goods instead.  


### Key Takeaways

  * Tariffs are duties on imports imposed by governments to raise revenue, protect domestic industries, or exert political leverage over another country.
  * Tariffs often result in unwanted side effects, such as higher consumer prices.
  * Tariffs have a long and contentious history, and the debate over whether they represent good or bad policy rages on to this day.



##  Understanding Tariffs 

In today’s global economy, many products made in a home country consist of parts obtained from other countries. Or, these products might have been assembled overseas. As a result, tariffs can affect the prices of products made in the home country as well as those imported from other countries. 

Many economists argue that tariffs create market distortions that can harm domestic consumers over time. They can also lead to a [trade war](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/trade-war.asp) if trading partners impose tit-for-tat tariffs. 

The process of setting tariff rates involves a combination of economic, political, and strategic issues. Governments engage in complex negotiations and considerations of reciprocity with trading partners. 

Tariffs also can be used as a political tool to manage relationships. 

##  How a Tariff Works 

Tariffs are used to restrict imports by increasing the price of goods and services purchased from another country. This makes them less attractive to domestic consumers. There are two types of tariffs: 

  * A specific tariff is levied as a fixed fee based on the type of item, such as a $1,000 tariff on a car.
  * An [ad valorem](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/advaloremtax.asp) tariff is levied based on the item’s value, such as 10% of the value of the vehicle.



###  Reasons for Tariffs 

Governments may impose tariffs to raise revenue or protect domestic industries—especially nascent ones—from foreign competition. By making foreign-produced goods more expensive, tariffs can make domestically-produced alternatives more attractive. 

Governments that use tariffs to benefit particular industries often do so to protect companies and jobs. Tariffs can also be used as an extension of foreign policy: Imposing tariffs on a trading partner’s main exports is a way to exert economic leverage. 

###  Side Effects 

Tariffs can have unintended side effects: 

  * They can make domestic industries less efficient and innovative by reducing competition. 
  * They can hurt domestic consumers since a lack of competition tends to push up prices. 
  * They can also generate tensions by favoring certain industries, or geographic regions, over others.
  * When used to pressure a rival country, a relationship can devolve into an unproductive cycle of retaliation, sometimes known as a trade war.



For example, tariffs designed to help manufacturers in cities may hurt consumers in rural areas who do not benefit from the policy and are likely to pay more for manufactured goods. 

### 

Governments assess tariffs based on what's needed to protect domestic industries, address trade imbalances, or respond to unfair trade practices.

##  Who Is Most Impacted by Tariffs? 

Tariffs can affect consumers, businesses, and countries' economic development: 

**1.** Tariffs often have a regressive impact, disproportionately affecting lower-income consumers. Since tariffs lead to higher prices for [imported goods](https://www.investopedia.com/tariffs-on-chinese-goods-8773900), individuals with limited financial means, who typically spend a higher percentage of their income on basic necessities, may bear a heavier burden than others.

**2.** Small businesses, particularly those relying on imported materials subject to tariffs, face significant challenges, such as the consequence of increased costs. Small businesses have different constraints compared to larger companies; these constraints aren't just how much money they make but how much influence they can have on economic policies.

**3.** Higher tariffs can impede developing countries' integration into the global economy, limiting their access to international markets, and potentially hindering economic development. These countries, with fewer resources, may not have the ability to purchase certain goods for consumption.

##  U.S. Tariffs and Free Trade 

In today’s market-leaning global economy, tariffs have earned something of a bad reputation. Many economists argue that they are harmful for the economy and consumers. 

For instance, the [Smoot-Hawley Tariff](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/smoot-hawley-tariff-act.asp) could be perceived as worsening the Great Depression in the 1930s. In an attempt to [strengthen the U.S. economy](https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/051315/what-are-examples-products-and-companies-rely-protective-tariffs-survive.asp) during the Great Depression, Congress passed the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act, which increased tariffs on farm products and manufactured goods coming into the United States.

In response, other nations, also suffering from economic malaise, raised tariffs on American goods, bringing global trade to a standstill. Because of the tariffs during that era, economists have estimated that overall world trade declined about 66% from 1929 to 1934.

###  A Laissez-Faire Approach to Trade 

Since then, policymakers on both sides of the aisle have shied away from the use of trade barriers, like tariffs. They've preferred the free-market policies that allow nations to specialize in certain industries and incentivize optimal efficiency. 

This more-or-less laissez-faire approach to U.S. trade remained in place after World War II and up until the election of President Donald Trump in 2016. 

###  Tougher Talk About Trading Partners 

Trump was one of a few presidents to speak openly about trade inequities and the threat of tariffs when he vowed to take a tough line against international trading partners, especially China. 

He claimed this would help American blue-collar workers displaced by what he described as unfair trade practices. 

In addition to tariffs on Chinese imports, the Trump administration also levied taxes on products made in Canada, Mexico, and the European Union (EU), among others.

Some of these were subsequently rolled back by the Biden administration. However. President Biden never removed the tariffs on Chinese goods imposed by Trump. In fact, later in his administration, Biden increased them.  


### 

The cost of tariffs is paid by consumers in the country that imposes the tariffs, not by the exporting country.

##  Example of Tariffs 

###  The First Trump Administration 

The conversation about tariffs grew during the first administration of President Trump as part of his economic policy, which was known as “America First.” This policy concerned American [protectionism](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/protectionism.asp), which typically means more tariffs. 

The first tariffs imposed in 2018 were on solar panels and washing machines. Robert Lighthizer, the then-[U.S. Trade Representative](https://www.investopedia.com/us-trade-representative-5224354), announced that after consulting with the Trade Policy Committee and the U.S. International Trade Commission, Trump decided that “increased foreign imports of washers and solar cells and modules are a substantial cause of serious injury to domestic manufacturers.”

The first 1.2 million imported washing machines would be taxed at 20%. Subsequently imported ones would be taxed at 50% in the following two years. Imported solar panel components would be taxed at 30%, with the rate declining over four years.

Soon after, the Trump administration slapped tariffs on imported aluminum. After that, a 25% tariff on all imported steel was imposed, in addition to the 10% tariff on aluminum in many countries.

What is notable here is that many of these countries were top trading partners and allies of the U.S. They were not happy with these additional tariffs. In response, the EU issued a 10-page list of tariffs on U.S. goods, ranging from Harley-Davidson motorcycles to bourbon.

###  The Reaction of Economists 

In a survey of economists conducted by Reuters, the Trump administration’s tariffs were very poorly received. 

Almost 80% of the 60 economists surveyed believed that the tariffs on steel and aluminum imports would actually harm the U.S. economy.

The rest believed that the tariffs would have little to no effect. All in all, none of the economists surveyed thought that the tariffs would benefit the economy.

###  The Result 

So, did the Trump tariffs work in the end? According to economists from various nonpartisan and bipartisan think tanks, the answer is a resounding no. 

A CNBC study discovered that Trump’s tariffs actually hurt consumers greatly and equaled one of the largest U.S. tax increases in decades.

Researchers also found that the Trump tariffs lowered the real income of American workers and reduced [gross domestic product (GDP)](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/g/gdp.asp) growth.

In 2021, the Biden administration worked to change many of these harmful trade barriers.

### 

Companies affected by tariffs essentially have three options: absorb the extra expense, increase prices, or move production to another country. In general, it is believed that Trump’s tariffs did more harm than good, costing companies billions of dollars, and reducing the demand for exported goods that were hit with retaliatory tariffs.

###  U.S. Tariffs on China 

Fears of an all-out U.S. trade war seemed to be validated as the first Trump administration imposed more tariffs, this time on China. They came after the Office of the United States Trade Representative (USTR) released the results of its Section 301 investigation into China’s trade practices.

The approximately 200-page report called out China’s use of preferential industrial policy to unfairly support Chinese firms, discrimination against foreign firms, and disregard for intellectual property.

Trump, in response to what he said were China’s unfair trading practices, imposed sweeping tariffs on $34 billion worth of Chinese goods. The tariffs targeted manufactured technology products from flat-screen televisions, aircraft parts, and medical devices to nuclear reactor parts and self-propelled machinery.

China promptly retaliated by imposing its own tariffs on U.S. agricultural products such as pork, soybeans, and sorghum.

The Chinese tariffs targeted American farmers and big industrial-agriculture operations in the Midwest—the same political groups that voted for Trump in 2016 and, in theory, had the most influence on his policies. 

The trade war continued after this, with both countries increasing tariffs—the U.S. in particular imposing levies on $200 billion worth of Chinese imports.

These tariffs were shown to reduce employment and economic output, impacting the overall U.S. economy and people’s livelihoods. They also did significant damage to relationships with other countries, particularly allies. 

## What Is an Example of a Tariff?

An example of a tariff could be a tax on steel imports. This means that any steel imported from another country would incur a cost—for example, 5% of the value of the imported goods—that would be paid by the individual or business importing the goods.

## What Is the Purpose of a Tariff?

Tariffs are a way for governments to not only generate revenue but also protect domestic businesses. Tariffs increase the price of imported goods, making domestic goods cheaper in comparison.

## Who Benefits From a Tariff?

The importing countries usually benefit from a tariff, as they are the ones imposing the tariff and collecting the revenue. Domestic businesses also benefit from tariffs because they make their goods cheaper than imported goods, hence driving up the demand for their products.

## How Do Tariffs Hurt Consumers?

Tariffs hurt consumers in the country that imposes the tariff because of the increased prices of imported goods. Since an importer has to pay the cost of the tariff on the goods that they import, they pass this increased cost on to consumers in the form of higher prices.

## How Do Tariffs Affect You?

If you are a consumer, tariffs affect you because they result in an increase in the price of imported goods.

If you are a domestic producer, tariffs can help you by making your goods cheaper compared to international goods, thus increasing your sales.

If you export your goods to other countries that impose tariffs, this may reduce the demand for your goods, thus hurting your business.

##  The Bottom Line 

Tariffs are taxes imposed on imported goods. They often result in higher prices for consumers. They can impact various demographics, and in particular burden lower-income consumers. They pose challenges for small businesses reliant on imported materials. 

The first Trump administration focused a great deal of its attention on imposing tariffs. Broadly speaking, most economists feel they had little impact, positive or negative, for the overall economy of the U.S. 

Article Sources

Investopedia requires writers to use primary sources to support their work. These include white papers, government data, original reporting, and interviews with industry experts. We also reference original research from other reputable publishers where appropriate. You can learn more about the standards we follow in producing accurate, unbiased content in our [editorial policy.](https://www.investopedia.com/legal-4768893#EditorialPolicy)

  1. ScienceDirect. "[Ad Valorem Tariff vs. Specific Tariff: Quality-Differentiated E-Tailers’ Profitability and Social Welfare in Cross-Border E-Commerce](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305048321001936)."

  2. Tax Foundation. "[Trump Tariffs: Tracking the Economic Impact of the Trump Trade War.](https://taxfoundation.org/research/all/federal/trump-tariffs-trade-war/)"

  3. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. "[The Effects of Tariff Rates on the U.S. Economy: What the Producer Price Index Tells Us.](https://www.bls.gov/opub/btn/volume-9/the-effects-of-tarifff-rates-on-the-u-s-economy-what-the-producer-price-index-tells-us.htm)"

  4. Council on Foreign Relations. "[What Are Tariffs.](https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/truth-about-tariffs)"

  5. U.S. Senate. “[The Senate Passes the Smoot-Hawley Tariff](https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Senate_Passes_Smoot_Hawley_Tariff.htm).”

  6. U.S. State Department, Office of the Historian. “[Milestones: 1921–1936: Protectionism in the Interwar Period](https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/protectionism)."

  7. The Brookings Institution. "[Did Trump’s Tariffs Benefit American Workers and National Security?](https://www.brookings.edu/policy2020/votervital/did-trumps-tariffs-benefit-american-workers-and-national-security/)"

  8. Reason. "[Trump Blames Biden for Never Removing the Tariffs Trump Imposed](https://reason.com/2024/06/28/trump-blames-biden-for-never-removing-the-tariffs-trump-imposed/)."

  9. Office of the U.S. Trade Representative. “[President Trump Approves Relief for U.S. Washing Machine and Solar Cell Manufacturers](https://ustr.gov/about-us/policy-offices/press-office/press-releases/2018/january/president-trump-approves-relief-us).”

  10. The White House ARCHIVE: Trump Administration. "[Presidential Proclamation on Adjusting Imports of Aluminum into the United States](https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/presidential-proclamation-adjusting-imports-aluminum-united-states/)."

  11. The White House ARCHIVE: Trump Administration. "[Trump Steel Tariffs Bring Hope, Prosperity Back to Granite City](https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/articles/trump-steel-tariffs-bring-hope-prosperity-back-granite-city/)."

  12. European Parliament. "[US Tariffs: EU Response and Fears of a Trade War](https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2018/623554/EPRS_ATA%282018%29623554_EN.pdf)."

  13. European Union External Action. "[EU Adopts Rebalancing Measures in Reaction to US Steel and Aluminium Tariffs](https://www.eeas.europa.eu/node/46934_en)."

  14. Reuters. "[Economists United: Trump Tariffs Won't Help the Economy](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-economy-poll/economists-united-trump-tariffs-wont-help-the-economy-idUSKCN1GQ02G)."

  15. CNBC. “[Trump’s Tariffs Are Equivalent to One of the Largest Tax Increases in Decades](https://www.cnbc.com/2019/05/16/trumps-tariffs-are-equivalent-to-one-of-the-largest-tax-increases-in-decades.html).”

  16. American Economic Association. “[The Impact of the 2018 Tariffs on Prices and Welfare](https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.33.4.187)," Download PDF, Pages 201, 208.

  17. The American Presidency Project. "[FACT SHEET: The United States and European Union To Negotiate World’s First Carbon-Based Sectoral Arrangement on Steel and Aluminum Trade](https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/10/31/fact-sheet-the-united-states-and-european-union-to-negotiate-worlds-first-carbon-based-sectoral-arrangement-on-steel-and-aluminum-trade/)."

  18. Reuters. “[Trump’s Tariffs Cost U.S. $46 Billion to Date, Data Shows](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trade-economy/trumps-tariffs-cost-u-s-companies-46-billion-to-date-data-shows-idUSKBN1Z8222)."

  19. Office of the United States Trade Representative. "[Section 301 Investigation Fact Sheet](https://ustr.gov/about-us/policy-offices/press-office/fact-sheets/2018/june/section-301-investigation-fact-sheet)."

  20. Office of the United States Trade Representative. "[Findings of the Investigation Into China’s Acts, Policies, and Practices Related to Technology Transfer, Intellectual Property, and Innovation Under Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974](https://ustr.gov/sites/default/files/Section%20301%20FINAL.PDF)."

  21. Office of the United States Trade Representative. "[$34 Billion Trade Action (List 1)](https://ustr.gov/issue-areas/enforcement/section-301-investigations/section-301-china/34-billion-trade-action).

  22. Congressional Research Service. "[China’s Retaliatory Tariffs on U.S. Agricultural Products](https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/if/if11085)," Page 2.

  23. Peterson Institute for International Economics. “[Trump’s Trade War Timeline: An Up-to-Date Guide](https://www.piie.com/sites/default/files/documents/trump-trade-war-timeline.pdf).”




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Part of the Series 

Global Trade Guide 

[ International (Global) Trade: Definition, Benefits, and Criticisms ](https://www.investopedia.com/insights/what-is-international-trade/)

Tariffs 

  1. [ What are Tariffs? ](https://www.investopedia.com/news/what-are-tariffs-and-how-do-they-affect-you/)

CURRENT ARTICLE

  2. [ Tariffs and Trade Barriers ](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/economics/08/tariff-trade-barrier-basics.asp)
  3. [ Trade Wars ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/trade-war.asp)
  4. [ How Would a Trade War Affect You? ](https://www.investopedia.com/insights/how-would-trade-war-affect-you/)
  5. [ Who Has the Highest Tariffs? ](https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/040115/which-countries-have-highest-tariffs.asp)
  6. [ Protectionism ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/protectionism.asp)



Global Players 

  1. [ The Plaza Accord ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/plaza-accord.asp)
  2. [ Currency Wars ](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/forex/042015/what-currency-war-how-does-it-work.asp)
  3. [ Factors Driving the USD ](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/forex/09/factors-drive-american-dollar.asp)
  4. [ Emerging Markets: The Parts of Russia's GDP ](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/120615/emerging-markets-analyzing-russias-gdp.asp)
  5. [ How OPEC (and Non-OPEC) Production Affects Oil Prices ](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/012216/how-opec-and-nonopec-production-affects-oil-prices.asp)
  6. [ BRICS: Acronym for Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/brics.asp)
  7. [ The Economy of Canada ](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/042315/fundamentals-how-canada-makes-its-money.asp)



Currency & Exchange Rates 

  1. [ How Currency Fluctuations Affect the Economy ](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/forex/080613/effects-currency-fluctuations-economy.asp)
  2. [ Devaluation ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/devaluation.asp)
  3. [ Manipulation ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/manipulation.asp)
  4. [ Revaluation ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/revaluation.asp)
  5. [ What is Fiat Money? ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/fiatmoney.asp)
  6. [ Yuan vs. Renminbi: What's the Difference? ](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/forex/061115/yuan-vs-rmb-understanding-difference.asp)
  7. [ What Causes a Currency Crisis? ](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/economics/08/currency-crises.asp)



Cryptocurrencies and Global Trade 

  1. [ South Korea's Ties to Crypto ](https://www.investopedia.com/news/why-south-korea-so-important-bitcoin-prices/)
  2. [ El Salvador Breaks Ground on Crypto ](https://www.investopedia.com/el-salvador-accepts-bitcoin-as-legal-tender-5200470)
  3. [ Sweden Takes First Steps on Crypto ](https://www.investopedia.com/sweden-takes-another-step-toward-a-digital-currency-5092069)



Commodities 

  1. [ What is a Commodity? ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/commodity.asp)
  2. [ Tradable Commodities ](https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/022315/what-are-tradable-commodities.asp)
  3. [ Commodities Index ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/commodityindices.asp)
  4. [ 10 Countries With The Most Natural Resources ](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/markets-economy/090516/10-countries-most-natural-resources.asp)
  5. [ What Causes Oil Prices to Fluctuate? ](https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/012715/what-causes-oil-prices-fluctuate.asp)
  6. [ What is a Crypto Commodity? ](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/crypto-commodity.asp)



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Related Terms

[Trade Wars: History, Pros & Cons, and U.S.-China Example](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/trade-war.asp)

A trade war is an economic conflict between countries. It arises when one retaliates against unfair trading methods of another with tariffs or other trade restrictions.

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[Import (Customs) Duty: Definition, How It Works, and Who Pays It](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/i/import-duty.asp)

Import duty is tax collected on imports and some exports by a country's customs authorities to raise state revenues. Import duty may also be referred to as customs duty, tariff, import tax, or import tariff.

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[What Is the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)?](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/g/gatt.asp)

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) is a trade treaty designed to boost member nations’ economies. Its organizational functions were absorbed by the WTO.

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[Consumer Durables: What Part of Retail Sales Are They?](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/durables.asp)

Consumer durables, also known as durable goods, are consumer goods that do not wear out quickly and therefore do not have to be purchased frequently.

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[Money Supply Definition: Types and How It Affects the Economy](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/moneysupply.asp)

The money supply is the entire stock of a nation's currency and other liquid instruments in circulation at a given time.

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[Customs Barrier: What It Is, How It Works, Example](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/customs-barrier.asp)

A customs barrier is any measure designed to limit international trade, including tariffs and duties.

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